Astronomical Calculations: Supporters and Detractors

A well-established calendar is indeed a crucial component of any civilization. It provides a framework for organizing daily life, coordinating events, and planning activities on both a societal and individual level. Proud nations often take pride in their calendars and may encourage others to adopt them as a sign of respect and unity.

In the context of Islam, there is a growing recognition of the need for a predetermined, fixed Islamic calendar. While traditional practices have relied on actual naked-eye sightings of the crescent Moon to determine the start of Islamic lunar months, this approach has limitations, particularly in the modern world. The complexity of coordinating religious events and holidays across diverse regions and communities has highlighted the need for a more standardized and accurate calendar.

Astronomical calculations provide a solution to this challenge. By leveraging precise and reliable calculations, an Islamic calendar can be established with accuracy and consistency. This approach offers several advantages, such as facilitating long-term planning, ensuring uniformity in religious observances, and simplifying the coordination of important events like Ramadan and Hajj.

While some may argue for the preservation of traditional practices, there is a growing feeling among some scholars and religious authorities that embracing astronomical calculations for calendar determination is a practical and viable solution. It allows for the preservation of the essence of Islamic religious observances while adapting to the needs of a modern, interconnected world. Ultimately, the use of precise astronomical calculations can contribute to greater unity and harmony within the Muslim community and foster a sense of belonging and shared identity.

In 2006, the Fiqh Council of North America took a stance that scientifically validated astronomical calculations can be considered a legitimate Islamic method for confirming or negating an Islamic month. I authored a paper titled "The Astronomical Calculations: A Fiqhi Discussion," initially intended for internal discussions among Fiqh Council members. The paper primarily cited Arabic-language references, drawing from original sources like Qur'anic exegesis (Tafsir), Prophetic narrations (Hadith), and classical treatises on Islamic Jurisprudence (Fiqh). Later, some key quotes were translated into English when the Fiqh Council decided to post the paper on its website, albeit in a hurried manner.

Subsequently, numerous papers emerged challenging the Fiqh Council's position and opposing the use of astronomical calculations to determine the beginning and end of Islamic lunar months. The debate between sighting the moon with the naked eye and relying on mathematical calculations has roots in early Islamic history and even predates it in the Jewish community. Due to its long history, arguments for and against both views have become somewhat standardized. The Muslim discourse on this matter primarily centers around the Qur'an and the narrations of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him). Traditional arguments for and against these positions are well-established in Islamic literature.

In a previous paper on this subject, I detailed most of these recurring arguments. In this work, I aim to respond to some major arguments presented against the Fiqh Council's position, as well as against my own paper, even though it may require some repetition.

Among the papers opposing the Fiqh Council's position, two authored by Respected Shaikh Hamza Yusuf, titled "Cesarean Moon Births," were notable for their systematic approach. These articles forcefully argued that the use of astronomical calculations to confirm Islamic months is entirely un-Islamic and contrary to the "infallible" (mutawatir) commandments of the Holy Prophet (PBUH). Shaikh Hamza suggested that such a position goes against the Prophet's warnings not to follow the practices of the Jews and Christians in their abandonment of their prophetic traditions. He contended that the calculation approach is an attempt to fit God's plans into human schedules and characterized it as "convenience store Islam." Shaikh Hamza still maintains the same position.

I want to emphasize that my love and respect for Shaikh Hamza are unwavering, and this dialogue is a Shara’i discourse without any personal animosity. We are all striving to understand the intent of the Lawgiver to the best of our abilities, seeking His guidance. Insha’Allah, both approaches are authentic and will be rewarded.

The main arguments put forth by those opposing the use of calculations in confirming or negating Ramadan can be summarized as follows:

1. They argue that the Qur'an categorically requires physical moon sighting (with the naked eye) to confirm the beginning and end of Islamic months, such as Ramadan. They contend that the Qur'an's mention of "witnessing the month" means actually sighting the new moon of Ramadan with the naked human eye.
2. Prophetic traditions, considered infallible, also demand an unwavering commitment to the physical sighting of the new moon by the naked eye to start and end Ramadan. They assert that only two methods for confirming or negating Islamic months are approved by these Prophetic injunctions: naked-eye sighting or completing 30 days.
3. Muslim scholars throughout history have accepted these two methods as normative. They argue that jurists have consistently rejected efforts to use mathematically computed astronomical calculations and have opposed scholars who employed such calculations.
4. The use of astronomical calculations has not been endorsed by the majority of jurists, but only by a minority based on questionable interpretations. Even this minority opinion does not entirely replace physical sighting but allows calculations in cases of obscurities, such as cloud cover.
5. They emphasize that the practice of physically sighting the crescent moon has been consistent in Islamic tradition, and it was also required in Jewish tradition but, later on, they introduced the innovation of calculation. Departing from the practice of actual moonsighting is seen as imitating the misguided path of the Jews.
6. Some argue that pre-Islamic Arabs and early Muslims were capable of using astronomical calculations to determine lunar months but deliberately rejected this method due to clear Prophetic prohibitions. They contend that although Muslim scholars excelled in astronomy, they did not apply it to Ramadan and other Islamic months.

The use of astronomical calculations, according to opponents, does not constitute progress but rather a regression in Islamic practice.

However, these arguments do not withstand in-depth analysis. The Qur'an does not explicitly require physical moon sighting but calls for "witnessing the month," which can include various forms of knowledge, including sighting but not limited to it.

Prophetic traditions, in reality, emphasize certainty regarding the start and end of Ramadan, with physical sighting as one means to achieve that certainty, but not the objective of fasting. The word “hilal”, in the Arabic language, denotes the “beginning part of something like rain, announcement, cry of joy, raising out loud voices”. The term "al-hilal" has been used culturally and metaphorically to represent specific phases of the new Moon, particularly the initial two to seven nights and the final two nights of the lunar month. However, its literal meanings do not necessitate any actual naked-eye moonsighting.

Additionally, the reported Prophetic supplications at the time of moonsighting do not require or substantiate physical eye sighting. The reports are weak. There is a divergence in reports regarding the Prophet's (PBUH) reaction when he first observed the new Moon. One Hadith suggests that the Prophet (PBUH) would avert his gaze from the new Moon and seek Allah's protection from any potential harm associated with it. Conversely, another widely circulated report indicates that the Prophet (PBUH) would recite particular supplications upon sighting the crescent Moon.

Notably, esteemed Hadith authorities such as Imams al-Bukhari and al-Muslim did not document any such supplications in their collections. Furthermore, Imam Ibn Dawud explicitly deemed both of the mentioned purported Prophetic reports as unreliable.

The claim that the only normative alternative to actual sighting is completing 30 days in case of obscurities is debatable, as there is no consensus (Ijma'a) on the illegality (Haram) of using astronomical calculations, especially in cases of obscurity. There are several claims of such an Ijma’a in our Fiqhi literature but, it does not exist in reality.

The debate over the validity of mathematical calculations in determining Ramadan has existed since the time of the Successors (first-generation Muslims). Most classical jurists have vehemently opposed using calculations for various reasons. They, for the most part, strongly opposed the use of mathematical calculations, citing a multitude of indirect valid reasons related to matters of faith and 'Ibadah (acts of worship).

Throughout our history, there have been instances where individuals of piety and righteousness, such as Mutarrif bin Abdillah Ibn al-Shikhir, Imam Ibn Surayj (d. 306 AH), Ibn Qutaybah, Imam Taj al-Din al-Subki (d. 683-756 AH), and others, resorted to employing mathematical calculations in the determination of the lunar month of Ramadan, particularly in cases of atmospheric obscurities. However, their actions were met with disapproval and criticism from many of their peers and subsequent classical jurists. This disapproval stemmed from a variety of reasons. So there is no consensus against the use of the calculations.

It is a misconception that using mathematical calculations aligns with Jewish practices. The Jewish calendar, unlike scientifically precise astronomical calculations, is an intercalated calendar developed mostly for secular reasons, not religious ones. The Jewish Rabbis made significant efforts to align their lunar calendar with the secular solar calendar. They did this to ensure that their religious festivals would consistently occur during specific seasons of the year and to coordinate their holidays with civil holidays.

Similarly, in pre-Qur'anic Arabia, a practice emerged where extra days and an additional thirteenth month were periodically added to the lunar calendar, typically every three years. This adjustment was made to manipulate the timing of the Hajj pilgrimage, aligning it with seasons that were more favorable for travel and business. However, this practice compromised the sanctity of the Hajj, as it led to the pilgrimage being performed in lunar months that were not originally designated for it. In contrast, astronomical calculations aim to determine the precise timing of established lunar months.

In response to the intercalated calendar, the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) emphasized the restoration of the calendar to its original form. He stipulated that the commencement of a new month should be based on the actual sighting of the crescent Moon rather than relying on arbitrary intercalated mathematical calculations. This change aimed to preserve the integrity of the sacred timing of the Hajj and uphold the authenticity of Islamic practices.

Ismail K. Poonawala, the author of article on “Ramadan” in Encarta, explains that: “In the pre-Islamic Arabic calendar, the month of Ramadan fell during the heat of summer. The word Ramadan means “scorcher” in Arabic. The early Arabic calendar, like the current Islamic calendar, was lunar. Because a lunar month has only 29 or 30 days, a year of 12 lunar months falls short of the 365 days in a solar calendar. In the pre-Islamic calendar, the lunar months kept their place in the seasons by the insertion of an extra month every two or three years. The Islamic calendar abolished this practice and fixed the Islamic year at 12 months totaling 354 days. As a result Ramadan occurs about 11 days earlier each year, and it rotates through the seasons in a cycle totaling about 33 years.”

Hence, suggesting the use of scientifically advanced and accurate astronomical calculations to validate or refute the sighting of the actual new Moon for Islamic lunar months, which is synonymous with preserving the original sacred timing, should not be construed as mimicking Jewish practices in religious matters. This approach does not alter the sanctified timing of the established lunar months; instead, it aids us in determining those timings with a high degree of precision and certainty.

The claim that pre-Qur'anic Arabs and early Muslims had the capability to use astronomical calculations but rejected them due to Prophetic prohibitions is disputable. While Muslim scholars excelled in astronomy, they did not apply the correct solar theory to astronomy.

In recent centuries, the field of astronomy has made remarkable advancements. Early astronomy, including Babylonian and Greek understandings, held inaccurate beliefs about our solar system. The Ptolemaic model, which dominated thinking since the 2nd century AD, posited that the Earth was stationary and at the center of the universe, with celestial bodies arranged in a linear sequence from the Moon to the so-called fixed stars.

Muslim scholars, known for their observational skills and expertise in astronomy, endeavored to refine elements of the flawed Ptolemaic astronomy. However, their attempts were limited in correcting fundamental flaws in the geocentric theory upon which it was based. During the transmission of Greek astronomy to the Middle East and Arabia, Arabian astronomers in the 9th and 10th centuries compiled new star catalogs and developed planetary motion tables. Nevertheless, their contributions to astronomical theories remained relatively modest.

By the 13th century, Arabic translations of Ptolemy's "Almagest" began to circulate in Western Europe, sparking interest in astronomy. Initially, Europeans focused on creating planetary motion tables based on Ptolemy's system or producing simplified explanations of his theory. Subsequently, scholars like the German philosopher and mathematician Nicholas of Cusa and the Italian polymath Leonardo da Vinci began to question the central tenets of Earth's centrality and immobility.

Efforts by Arabian astronomers to enhance the Ptolemaic system by introducing new epicycles to account for unanticipated planetary variations proved unsuccessful in resolving its inherent inconsistencies. Eventually, in the 16th century, the Copernican system, proposed by Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543, revolutionized astronomical thought. This system proposed that both Earth and the planets orbit the Sun, with Earth also rotating on its north-south axis daily. This groundbreaking theory superseded the Ptolemaic model, which had dominated astronomical thinking for centuries.

It is important to note that while medieval Muslim societies did experience significant scientific development, their astronomical discoveries were constrained by the flawed foundation of the Ptolemaic theory and a lack of sophisticated modern instruments. In contrast, contemporary scientific tools such as advanced telescopes, well-equipped laboratories, space exploration missions like NASA's moon expeditions, and various branches of astronomy like Gamma-Ray, X-Ray, Ultraviolet, Infrared, Radio, and Radar Astronomy have expanded our understanding of celestial phenomena.

Numerous projects have been dedicated to studying the relationship between the Earth and the Moon, as well as the Moon's orbital motion. For example, since 1957, the International Geophysical Year (IGY) project has employed powerful Markowitz cameras at more than twenty observatories worldwide to precisely observe the Moon's position. These advanced astronomical calculations have yielded erudite and precise insights into lunar motions and positions.

In recent centuries, astronomy has made significant advancements, rectifying earlier errors in understanding our solar system. The Copernican system replaced the faulty Ptolemaic model, and modern astronomy relies on advanced technology and precise observations. Contrary to the past, today's astronomical calculations are sophisticated and accurate, allowing for precise determination of lunar months.

In conclusion, the use of scientifically developed astronomical calculations to confirm or negate Islamic lunar months is a subject of debate, with valid arguments on both sides. While some argue for the traditional method of physical moon sighting, others contend that modern scientifically precise astronomical calculations provide a reliable and accurate alternative, in line with the Islamic spirit of precision and certainty. The Fiqh Council's decision to permit the utilization of highly accurate astronomical calculations is not only valid but also a prudent response that aligns with the demands of contemporary society, culture and its requirements.

Evolving Nature of Islamic Fiqh

Human beings are inherently social creatures who thrive in their cultural environments, and this natural disposition towards culture has manifested in various ways throughout Muslim history. Human beings are also born with varying dispositions. These varying inclinations can also be traced back to the early Companions of the Prophet (PBUH). For instance, Imam Abu Abdillah al-Bukhari recounts a situation after the Battle of Confederates where the Prophet (PBUH) instructed a group of Companions not to perform the 'Asr prayer until they had reached the Banu Qurayzah area, which was located on the outskirts of Madinah. Some Companions opted to offer the 'Asr prayer en route, assuming that the Prophet (PBUH) wanted them to quickly reach the Banu Qurayzah area and not miss the prayer. Another group adhered strictly to the Prophetic command and refrained from praying until they had reached their destination. The Prophet (PBUH) understood the intentions of both groups and did not disapprove of either.

This historical context illustrates that Islamic practices have been influenced by differing perspectives and interpretations over the centuries. These variations are inherent to human nature and are also evident in the thought patterns of the early Companions. It is a historical fact that the Islamic Fiqh has evolved over the centuries to respond to evolving times and circumstances.

The debate surrounding the use of mathematical calculations for establishing prayer times provides a compelling example of this evolution. Early authorities in various Islamic jurisprudential schools generally resisted the use of calculations, asserting that such practices were in conflict with the established Sunnah, which required the observation of natural phenomena like shadows or the positions of the sun for determining prayer times. For instance, scholars like Imam Zain al-Din Abd al-Rahman bin Ahmad, also known as Ibn Rajab al-Hanbali, and Taqi al-Di'n Muhammad bin 'Ali Ibn Daqi'q al-'Aid opposed the incorporation of calculations for determining prayer timings.

Later jurists, like Imam Ahmad bin Idri's bin Abd al-Rahman Shihab al-Din al-Qarrafi in the Maliki school, championed the use of calculations in establishing daily prayer times, marking a significant departure from earlier positions. However, al-Qarrafi's approval of calculations pertained to daily prayers and did not extend to Ramadan fasting.

Throughout Islamic history, scholars and theologians have grappled with the tension between preserving the original intent of religious laws and adapting them to changing societal circumstances. Some have sought to adhere strictly and literally to the original teachings, viewing any deviations as innovations that risk diluting the essence of Islam. This inclination is not confined to a specific jurisprudential school but represents an ideological movement dedicated to upholding the Prophetic Sunnah in its purest form, even to the letter. Conversely, another group has aimed to implement Islamic teachings in their intended essence, often accommodating them within the bounds of practicality and reason. They explore underlying reasons behind Prophetic traditions to apply them faithfully while allowing for flexibility when necessary. The first group typically insists that the rationale and means behind religious laws must be explicitly outlined by the lawgiver.

The dispute over the use of mathematical calculations to determine prayer times and Qiblah directions exemplifies these competing tendencies. Early authorities in many jurisprudential schools opposed the application of calculations in these matters, considering it contrary to the established Sunnah that relied on observable natural phenomena. For instance, Imam Ibn Rajab al-Hanbali rejected the use of calculations for prayer timings as well as Qiblah direction, emphasizing the simplicity of relying on the sun's position, shadows and directions.

This historical perspective demonstrates that Islamic jurisprudence has evolved in response to changing circumstances over the centuries. It also underscores the diversity of opinions within the Islamic tradition, with scholars from different backgrounds and times holding varying perspectives on matters of religious practice. Today, almost all scholars advocate for the use of astronomical calculations in determining prayer timings and Qiblah directions, recognizing the practical advantages they offer without compromising the essence of the faith. It is plausible to anticipate a growing acceptance of the use of astronomical calculations in establishing a predetermined global Islamic calendar. As Muslims continue to grapple with the challenges of coordinating religious observances and events across diverse regions and communities, the practical advantages of such an approach will become increasingly evident.

The Discourse on the Unity of Horizons vs. Diversity of Horizons:

Furthermore, in the early days of Islamic jurisprudence, scholars from the Hanafi, Maliki, Hanbali, and some Sha'fa'ee schools held a strong belief in the unity of horizons. They maintained that if the new moon was sighted in any Muslim city or country, fasting during Ramadan was obligatory for the entire Muslim community. Some of these early jurists even argued that this obligation was rooted in the commandment of the Prophet himself, who instructed, "Start fasting by seeing the new Moon," addressing the entire Muslim nation.

Imam Ibn Qudamah al-Maqdasi, representing the Hanbali School, asserted, "Ramadan is an agreed-upon obligation. Trustworthy witnesses confirmed the sighting of the new Moon, making fasting obligatory for all Muslims. The month of Ramadan falls between two crescent Moons and must be observed, as indicated by both textual evidence and consensus."

Al-Qarrafi explained the positions of the Maliki and Hanbali Schools, stating, "The entire Muslim world is required to commence fasting upon receiving a sighting report from anywhere, regardless of the differences in horizons. Ahmad [Ibn Hanbal] argued that the noon (zawal) is simultaneous all over the world, as the Prophetic commandment states, 'start fasting by seeing it,' addressing the entire Muslim community."

Renowned Hanafi jurist Uthman bin Ali al-Zayla'ee affirmed, "The authorized position of the Hanafi School is that a sighting in one city suffices as a sighting for all, obligating the inhabitants of the Eastern hemisphere to confirm the month through a sighting in the West."

However, it is essential to note that later jurists rejected the concept of the unity of horizons embraced by their predecessors. Al-Qarrafi, another Maliki authority, argued based on astronomy that horizons indeed differ. He contended that those in the Western hemisphere had a greater likelihood of sighting the new Moon due to its westward movement and increasing visibility with age. Additionally, he established that daily prayer timings varied across different localities.

To illustrate the point, if two brothers, one in the East and the other in the West, passed away at noon, the one in the East would have experienced noon earlier than the one in the West. Thus, inheritance laws would apply accordingly.

Al-Qarrafi argued, "If the crescent Moon differs with differing horizons, then each locality must rely on its own Moon sighting. Just as each locality has its distinct prayer timings, such as Fajr (dawn prayer). This is a well-founded perspective while obligating global fasting based on local Moon sightings deviates from established Islamic principles. It's crucial to understand that the Islamic texts do not mandate such an obligation."

Imam al-Nawawi, a prominent Shafa'i scholar, maintained, "If the Moon is sighted in one locality and not in others, the sighting applies to nearby areas without dispute. The disagreement arises concerning distant regions. Two opinions exist on this matter, with the correct one being that people are not obligated to follow the sighting of another locality. Many scholars have affirmed this, while others have ruled in favor of the sighting in one locality applying to all."

Among Hanafi scholars, some, like al-Zayla'ee, argued for local sighting instead of universal sighting, reasoning that Ramadan's confirmation depends on local sightings, just as prayer times vary by location. Ibn A'abideen emphasized the indisputable differences in horizons and the varying timings of noon and sunset in different regions. He noted that, due to the Sun's westward movement, every second marks the beginning of morning for a new locality and evening for others.

In one anecdote, the jurist Abu Musa Al-Darir clarified that individuals must follow their local circumstances. This story, known as the Hadith of Kurayb, is cited by both groups to support fundamentally opposing conclusions.

Imam Muslim reported that Kurayb witnessed the new Moon in Syria, and when he returned to Madinah, he reported the sighting to Ibn Abbas. However, Ibn Abbas disagreed and stated that they had seen it a day later in Madinah, adhering to the commandment of the Prophet. This report has been interpreted differently, with some arguing for local sighting and others for a more universal approach.

In conclusion, these conflicting interpretations of Prophetic Hadith regarding moon sighting stem from the scholars' efforts to apply these teachings within their specific cultural and scientific contexts. It highlights the adaptability of Islamic texts to different times and places, as they allow for a variety of interpretations to accommodate diverse circumstances.