Franciscan and Dominican Arabic Learning Institutes

Franciscan Missionary Outreach

The Franciscan order, founded by St. Francis of Assisi in the early 13th century, played a significant role in the Christian church's outreach efforts, including missionary work in the Islamic world. The Franciscans' engagement with the Arabic language and Islamic culture during the 13th century was part of a broader Christian effort to understand and communicate with the Muslim world, particularly during the time of the Crusades and in the context of Christian-Muslim relations in Spain, the Holy Land and other parts of the Mediterranean. On the way, they learned, digested, and incorporated a great deal of Muslim knowledge, sciences, methods, arguments, and strategies into their mission work and culture.

In the 13th century, the Franciscan order established its presence in the Middle East, including in places like Jerusalem, Acre, and Damascus, which were centers of Islamic learning and culture. The Franciscans were among the first Christian religious orders to emphasize the study of Arabic and Islamic culture, recognizing the importance of language in their missionary and diplomatic efforts. This was not only for conversion but also for fostering understanding and dialogue between Western and Eastern Christians and between Christians and Muslims.

Studium Biblicum Franciscanum

One notable example of Franciscan engagement with Arabic and Islamic studies was the initial establishment of the Studium Biblicum Franciscanum in Jerusalem, although it was formally established later.

The Franciscans also engaged in translating important Christian texts into Arabic and vice versa. For example, Ramon Llull (1232-1315), though not a Franciscan but closely associated with Franciscan missions, dedicated a significant part of his life to learning Arabic and engaging in dialogue with Muslims, embodying the spirit of Franciscan outreach.

The Franciscans, like their Dominican counterparts, emphasized Arabic language and Muslim learning mainly as tools for conversion. It is true that the initial top leadership such as Master General Bonaventure (1257–74), Aquinas’s friend and fellow Parisian, insisted that “reason alone is not sufficient to prove the truth of Christianity, that miracles are sometimes necessary to incline the hearts of infidels to the True Religion.” There were some Franciscans who insisted upon an alternate methodology of rational discourse in mission works to Muslims. Roger Bacon (1214-1292) was such a Franciscan; he was an intriguing figure with unique vision and insight.

Roger Bacon

Roger Bacon was an English philosopher and Franciscan friar who placed considerable emphasis on the study of nature through empirical methods. He is sometimes credited with foreseeing modern scientific methods and is often regarded as one of the earliest European advocates for the modern scientific method proposed by later figures such as Galileo and Francis Bacon (no relation). He was greatly interested in Muslim scientific works and rational discourse.

Bacon was educated at the University of Oxford and possibly also at the University of Paris, the leading centers of learning in Europe at the time. His work covered a wide range of subjects including mathematics, optics, alchemy, and linguistics, and he was deeply interested in the philosophical and scientific knowledge of the Muslim world. Bacon argued for the importance of empirical research and the value of experience over pure reliance on authority, which was a revolutionary approach in an era when the Church establishment and scholasticism emphasized the primacy of classical texts and theological authority.

Bacon and Arabic Learning

One of Bacon's significant contributions was his advocacy for the study of languages, including Arabic, which he recognized as crucial for accessing the vast knowledge preserved by Islamic scholars, particularly in science and philosophy. He understood that many important works of Aristotle and other classical authors, as well as scientific and mathematical texts, were available in Latin only through translations from Arabic. This recognition underscores the significance of medieval Muslim legacy and the interconnectedness of medieval intellectual traditions across religious and cultural boundaries.

Bacon's major works include the "Opus Majus," "Opus Minus," and "Opus Tertium," which he wrote at the behest of Pope Clement IV. The "Opus Majus" is his most famous work, encapsulating his views on a wide array of subjects from logic and philosophy to mathematics, optics, alchemy, and the moral necessity of scientific knowledge. In it, he also emphasized the importance of correcting the Latin translations of the Bible and other scientific and philosophical works by consulting the original texts, including Hebrew and Greek manuscripts, to prevent the perpetuation of errors.

Despite his innovative approach to learning and research, Bacon faced opposition and at times imprisonment by the Franciscan order due to his critical views on the ignorance and outmoded traditional approach of his contemporaries and his bold assertions regarding the reform of the educational system. His advocacy for empirical observation and experimentation, as well as his call for the church to incorporate rational, logical and scientific knowledge into its theological teachings, were far ahead of his time, laying the groundwork for the eventual development of the scientific method.

Amanda Power states that “Roger Bacon occupies a prominent, if ambiguous, position in the history of the medieval period. He is widely regarded as a significant figure in the development of modern scientific thought, playing an important role in the assimilation of Graeco-Arabic learning into the Latin world. He was one of the first to teach Aristotle’s natural philosophy in Paris, and his later investigations were imaginative and diverse. In particular, he explored controversial fields such as astrology, alchemy, and magic, which sought to harness the power of nature at the very boundaries of the licit. Although he was one of a number of scholars who were involved in the process of adapting this material for Christian use, he was unique in producing a series of treatises for the papal curia in which he offered pungent analyses of his society and its intellectual life. These, together with his program for its reform, have brought him lasting attention and repute. Displaced from their original setting, his ideas have been valued as a remarkable early statement of a set of aspirations central to Western secular identity: the rejection of prejudice and superstition and the continuing advance of science.”

Bacon's Rational Discourse

Bacon contended that Muslims residing in the Holy Lands, especially those in Spain and Sicily, exhibit a relatively more rational and philosophical inclination. Rather than being swayed by biblical arguments, rhetorical appeals, or miracles presented by Christian missionaries, they prefer to engage in rational and philosophical discourse. “Like Abelard, friar Roger was convinced that rational argumentation was a universally intelligible and effective means of communication – particularly well suited to the philosophically minded peoples of Islam.” Bacon observed that “Persuasion of the truth as alone contained in the Christian religion is a twofold matter, since we may appeal to miracles which are beyond us and beyond unbelievers, a method in regard to which no man can presume; or we may employ a method familiar to them and to us, which lies within our power and which they cannot deny, because the approach is along the paths of human reason and along those of philosophy … We are not able to argue in this matter by quoting our law nor the authorities of the Saints, because unbelievers deny Christ the Lord and his law and the Saints. Wherefore we must seek for reasons in another way which is common to us and to unbelievers, namely, philosophy.”

John Tolan comments that Bacon’s ambition was “to create a science of religion: a rational basis for Christian truth and a scientific way of understanding the different religions of the world. He affirms that the only two ways to bring infidels to the faith are through miracles or through human reason; since we cannot count on miracles, rational argumentation is the only real alternative.” The literary Arabic language was a must for such rational and philosophical training. “Arabic serves little use for theological study, but for philosophy and for conversion of infidels much…”

Bacon noticed that countless Western Christians knew how to speak and communicate in Arabic, Hebrew and Greek but very few were equipped with literary tools to decipher the philosophical and rational underpinnings of the written corpus. He stated that "many men can be found among western Christians, who know how to speak Greek or Arabic or Hebrew, but very few who know the literary structure [orationem grammaticae ipsius] or how to teach it- I've put many of them to the test." Bacon was himself proficient in the Arabic language and many Muslim sciences.

The focus on Arabic language, history, religion, and philosophy found a sympathetic influential leader in Bacon’s friend Pope Clement IV, who in 1265 agreed that “the best strategy for a campaign of mass proselytism would be to train multilingual missionaries in philosophical argumentation.” The same Pope Clement IV was the patron of Thomas Aquinas and assigned him the Cathedral of Santa Sabina to initiate the Dominican school of higher learning and training. Aquinas’ works, such as Summa Contra Gentiles and Summa Theologica, completed in Rome, should be reflected through the prism of this broader philosophical missionary orientation towards Muslims.

Bacon insisted that his rational discourse and intellectual methodology were much needed in the apocalyptic times. He argued that “the current situation was dire: a divided, apathetic, unphilosophical Christendom was surrounded by numerous infidel peoples, against which it sent ineffectual crusading armies and poorly prepared missionaries. Yet there was cause for hope: the predictions of the Apocalypse, confirmed by the scientific calculations of Saracen astrologers and by the Mongol sack of Baghdad, showed that Islam had at most thirty years ahead of it. The need to educate Franciscan missionaries in Bacon’s intellectual system was urgent, but the hopes for success were good.” He prepared his works for Pope Clement IV, but the pope died before being able to implement Bacon’s vision.

Ramon Llull

Ramon Llull (c. 1232–1316), also known as Raymond Lully or Raimundus Lullus in Latin, was a notable philosopher, logician, Franciscan tertiary, and writer from the Kingdom of Majorca. His work is considered a precursor to computation theory and information science. Llull is renowned for his extensive contributions to the development of a new methodological approach to knowledge, which he called "Ars Generalis Ultima" or "Ars Magna" (The Great Art).

Llull's life was marked by a profound spiritual transformation around midlife, leading him to devote himself to missionary work and the promotion of Christian faith. He aimed to create a universal logic and language that could be understood by people of all faiths, with the ambitious goal of converting Muslims and Jews to Christianity through logical argumentation rather than coercion or crusading. Llull's approach was innovative for its attempt to use logical and philosophical proofs to support faith.

His "Ars Magna" is particularly noteworthy for its early attempt to formalize thought processes using mechanical means. Llull envisioned a system where theological, philosophical, and scientific truths could be generated by combining basic truths stored on rotating concentric circles. This method anticipated aspects of modern computational theory and artificial intelligence, particularly the idea of generating knowledge through the manipulation of symbols according to logical rules.

Llull's travels took him across Europe and into North Africa on several occasions, where he engaged in public debates and attempted to convert Muslims to Christianity. His missionary zeal and method of public debate were met with resistance, and according to tradition, he faced martyrdom in North Africa, though historical accounts of his death vary.

Beyond his contributions to logic and computation, Llull wrote extensively on theology, philosophy, and the natural sciences. His prolific output includes novels, poetry, and autobiographical works, reflecting his diverse interests and profound spiritual and intellectual curiosity.

Despite his innovative ideas, Llull's work was not widely adopted in his lifetime, and it received mixed reactions from his contemporaries. However, his contributions have been reassessed over time, and he is now recognized as a significant figure in the history of philosophy, science, and literature, with his methods influencing later thinkers and researchers in various fields.

Llull and Arabic Learning

Raymond Llull, a fellow Parisian Franciscan alongside Bacon, and a former seneschal to Prince James (later James II of Mallorca), similarly emphasized the significance of Arabic language and rational discourse. He acquired knowledge of Arabic from an Arab slave and advocated for kings, popes, princes, teachers, and ecumenical councils to establish advanced institutes for Arabic studies. Llull believed such institutions were essential for properly training Christian missionaries operating within both Muslim-majority and minority communities. “Like Bacon, Llull became convinced that the best means for bringing unbelievers to conversion universally was for missionaries to be trained in foreign languages and the techniques of philosophical disputation. On the advice of fellow Catalan and former Dominican master-general Raymond Penyafort, he gave up an initial impulse to attend the university in Paris and devoted himself instead to Arabic studies with the help of a Muslim slave at home in Mallorca.”

The contemporary Llullian authority and translator Anthony Bonner observes that “it then occurred to him that he should go to the pope, to kings, and to Christian princes to incite them to institute, in whatever kingdoms and provinces might be appropriate, monasteries in which selected monks and others fit for the task would be brought together to learn the languages of the Saracens and other unbelievers, so that, from among those properly instructed in such a place, one could always find the right people ready to be sent out to preach and demonstrate to the Saracens and other unbelievers the holy truth of the Catholic faith, which is that of Christ.”

King James and Arabic Schools

King James granted Llull the means necessary to fulfill his vision of Arabic schools of language and philosophy. “His former employer, King James II of Mallorca, granted land and funding for the establishment of an Arabic school at Miramar on the coast of the island, where thirteen Franciscans at a time were to be trained in the language and arguments necessary to fulfill Raymond’s evangelical vision.”

Both Franciscans and Dominicans were granted lands, buildings and other kinds of trust funds to support their learning and missionary work among Muslims and Jews. For instance, in 1231 King James wrote: “Desiring that the new tree of the Order of Preachers should thrive and flourish, thrusting and spreading strong roots into the earth, so that in time a most plentiful harvest of souls might be gathered in, especially in these parts where the pagans and the Mallorcan Saracens have been defeated and made captives, and their kingdom happily obtained through their submission and the power of our rule, We, James … for the remedy of our soul and that of our parents, freely give and concede this place in the Almudayna of the City of Mallorca … in perpetuity to our lord God and to his most blessed mother Mary and to saint Dominic and to his Order of Preachers … for the building and construction of a monastery and church of the said Order of Preachers.”

The outlandish imperial and papal support for the Dominican and Franciscan language, philosophical and apologetic institutes of higher learning, and informed missionary endeavors continued throughout the thirteenth century, fading only at the end of the thirteenth century. Robert Burn notes that “Most of the records for these schools have disappeared, though minutes from Dominican general and provincial chapters, along with references from the lives of leaders, supply some information. A converted Moor, the Dominican Michael of Benazar (Ibn Nasr), may have created the first such philosophy and language school shortly after the fall of Majorca; if so, it soon foundered. The Dominicans placed their central schools for work with western Muslims at those spots within the area that combined density of the Muslim population with maximum opportunity -Tunis for a while, then Jativa, Murcia, and Valencia city, with Barcelona as the base back home. Tunis was the first center established from Barcelona. It dates from the early 1240S, at the latest from 1245. An assignment of eight friars in 1250, often mistaken as the founding, shows it in full career.”

The Franciscan and Dominican Friars who dedicated themselves to learning Arabic and delving into Islamic teachings for missionary purposes played a crucial role as mediators in translating Arabic texts into Latin. They engaged with and responded to various Muslim concepts across fields such as science, theology, philosophy, and medicine. These friars served as the primary channel through which Thomas Aquinas gained access to certain works by Muslim philosophers and theologians that had not yet been translated into Latin. Aquinas received untranslated texts by figures like Ibn Rushd and al-Ghazali from his fellow friars, such as Raymond Marti, who possessed proficiency in Arabic, resided in Muslim regions, and were familiar with these works.