Islam and Western Misconceptions about Modern Civilization

In the Western world today, Islam and Islamic civilization face significant scrutiny and misunderstandings. This intensified following the unfortunate events in the Middle East, Sweden, and France and the response from President Macron. Macron stated that Islam is experiencing a worldwide crisis and needs to be “enlightened.” His perspective misses a critical point about Islam’s historical contributions to the Enlightenment in France, England, and America during the 17th and 18th centuries. While the Muslim world might benefit from a revival, it’s essential to differentiate between the cultural and political aspects of certain regions and the teachings of the religion itself.

One misconception perpetuated by critics of Islam is its portrayal as a violent and backward religion, associating it with intolerance, violence, and archaic traditions. This depiction positions Islam as fundamentally opposed to ideas of progress, freedom, modernity, and democracy. The core argument of these critics suggests that Islamic civilization has little or no contribution to the advancement of human society, especially within a Western context.

However, this viewpoint oversimplifies history. Critics often overlook the challenges Europe faced during the 16th and 17th centuries, which included internal conflicts, religious wars, economic downturns, and oppressive governance. Europe’s journey from these dark ages towards the enlightened republicanism that we associate with the modern West was significantly influenced by Islamic teachings, wealth, sciences, and ideas.

During Europe’s transformative period, key figures and movements took inspiration from Islamic sources. Notably, individuals and groups like Michael Servetus, the Socinians, Unitarians, and Deists were influenced by Islamic perspectives on rationality, theology, religious freedom, and consultative governance. The connections between the Muslim East and Europe, through trade across the Atlantic and Mediterranean during the 17th and 18th centuries, were pivotal in Europe’s progress. Trade was not merely an exchange of goods, but an exchange of ideas, fostering mutual respect and understanding.

Yet, some historians, driven by a Eurocentric view that centers Europe as the primary source of global progress and innovation, often sideline or altogether ignore the influence of Islamic civilization. This selective representation of history is detrimental to our understanding of global interconnectedness and the shared human journey toward progress and enlightenment.

It’s crucial to approach the narrative of Islam and Islamic civilization with an open mind and a nuanced understanding. While the current Muslim world has its challenges, it’s a misrepresentation to equate those challenges with the teachings of Islam. As history suggests, Islam has played a significant role in the journey of human civilization, especially during critical transformative periods in the West. Recognizing and appreciating these contributions is essential for fostering mutual respect and understanding in our increasingly interconnected world.

Understanding Western Civilization: Its Origins and Impact on Global Narratives

Western civilization has often been portrayed as the beacon of progress and the pinnacle of human development. This view heralds the West as a unique entity, one that achieved its current state without any significant influence from non-Western civilizations. The widely accepted narrative, as noted by Eric Wolf, is that the evolution of the West is a linear progression: ancient Greece led to Rome, which gave birth to Christian Europe. This Christian Europe then gave rise to the Renaissance, followed by the Enlightenment, which laid the foundation for political democracy and the industrial revolution. Ultimately, this sequence of events culminated in the emergence of the United States, representing ideals of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

This narrative emphasizes the West’s direct lineage to ancient civilizations like Rome, suggesting that Western advancements came without significant outside influence. Anthony Pagden supports this notion, stating that Europe’s colonial aspirations and systems were inspired primarily by the ancient Roman Empire. Rome’s ideologies, language, and political structures supposedly provided the framework for the colonial ventures of European powers like Spain, Britain, and France.

A significant aspect of this Eurocentric view is the belief in the inherent superiority of Western civilization, rooted in Judeo-Christian traditions and a concept termed “European manifest destiny.” According to this perspective, Europe and, by extension, the West are the birthplaces of modern democratic principles, science, and advanced civilization. Conversely, the East, especially the Muslim world, is depicted as a source of stagnation, irrationalism, and outdated feudal systems. Such views argue that the East lacks the progressive and innovative qualities inherent in European society, implying a dichotomy between the progressive West and the stagnant East.

European virtues such as rationalism, liberal individualism, a democratic value system, capitalist tendencies, moral principles, and the idea of a predetermined European greatness (manifest destiny) are considered exclusive to the Western world. These traits are presented as the primary reasons for Europe’s rise and the perceived regression of non-European societies. The implication here is that non-European civilizations, including Muslim societies, inherently lack these qualities and therefore cannot match Europe’s pace of progress.

Further, the progression towards modernity is portrayed as a singular, linear path. The journey supposedly began in ancient times, passed through European feudal systems, moved into the Renaissance, and then transitioned to the Enlightenment, culminating in Western capitalism and the Industrial Revolution. This portrayal posits that modernity, science, commerce, and capitalism are all uniquely Western products. They stem from an intrinsic European rationality and exceptionalism, suggesting that these developments are almost genetically encoded in European heritage. This viewpoint insinuates that such advancements are naturally aligned with European destiny and superiority, dismissing potential contributions or influences from non-European sources.

The traditional narrative of Western civilization’s development champions its unique path to progress and modernity, emphasizing its roots in ancient civilizations like Rome and dismissing significant external influences. This Eurocentric perspective tends to overshadow contributions from other civilizations, establishing a binary between the progressive West and the static East. While this narrative has been prevalent, it’s essential to approach history with a holistic lens, recognizing the interconnectedness of human civilizations and the shared contributions to global progress.

Max Weber’s Perspective on European Capitalism and Modernity

Max Weber, a famous sociologist from the late 19th and early 20th centuries, explored the unique factors that distinguished Europe’s socio-economic and religious developments from other prominent civilizations like the Muslim world, India, and China. He believed that these distinctions played a significant role in the rise of modern capitalism, democracy, and the broader scope of modernity in Europe.

One of Weber’s central arguments revolves around the Protestant foundations, specifically Calvinistic and Puritan ideologies, which he associated with North European capitalism. According to Weber, Calvinism, especially in the 17th century, introduced a unique challenge to its believers. Due to its dogmatic views on predestination, followers faced uncertainty about their salvation. Calvinists believed that God had already determined who would achieve salvation, which led to an internal crisis among believers: how could they be sure they were among the chosen?

To address this spiritual concern, English Calvinist pastoral literature, represented by figures like Richard Baxter, shifted the narrative. They suggested that a believer’s success in their worldly duties and their ability to profit could be seen as a sign of divine favor. This notion created a psychological link between earthly success, especially in the form of capitalist acquisition, and heavenly assurance. Thus, to Weber, the rise of capitalism in Europe wasn’t directly a product of religious theology but rather an indirect psychological response to it.

The entrepreneur, under this belief system, viewed success in business as an affirmation of God’s favor. Profit wasn’t just a sign of business acumen but also a divine blessing. This perspective transformed hard work and business success into religious pursuits – not for material or worldly gains, but as an ethical and religious duty.

Beyond religious influences, Weber identified several socio-economic factors unique to Western Europe that supported its journey towards modern capitalism:

1. Separation of Work from Household: In Europe, there was a clear distinction between business and household matters, more so than in other civilizations. This separation allowed for the professionalization and growth of business ventures.
2. Urban Development: European cities, after the medieval era, gained significant political autonomy, making them distinct from agrarian feudal systems. In contrast, Eastern cities remained closely tied to local agricultural economies due to kinship structures.
3. Roman Law: Europe inherited the tradition of Roman law, a system more rationally integrated than any other legal tradition in the world. This legal framework played a pivotal role in forming the European nation-state, managed by bureaucratic officials. The structure of this rational-legal system not only influenced the governance but also seeped into business practices, laying the groundwork for a capitalist economy.
4. Double-Entry Bookkeeping: Weber saw the development of double-entry bookkeeping in Europe as crucial for organizing and regularizing capitalist enterprises.

All these unique factors combined to foster what Weber termed the “special peculiarity of Occidental rationalism.” This meant that Europe had a distinct form of rationalism that wasn’t present in other civilizations. This unique rationalism was, according to Weber, responsible for the unparalleled rise and superiority of European civilization.

Max Weber argued that a blend of religious beliefs and socio-economic practices unique to Europe paved the way for its distinct form of capitalism and modernity. These factors, deeply rooted in European traditions and practices, culminated in the continent’s civilizational superiority – a destiny Weber believed was exclusively European due to its distinctive humanitarian and geographical circumstances.

The Weberian View of European Superiority and its Religious Roots

Max Weber believed that this perceived superiority was intrinsically linked to the Judeo-Christian religious traditions. Furthermore, Weber was insistent that influences from other major religions like Islam, Hinduism, or Buddhism had no significant contribution to European modernity or its unique civilization.

Weber argued that the development of a rational economic approach in Europe was not only tied to rational techniques and legal structures but was also heavily influenced by people’s capacity and inclination to adopt specific types of rational behaviors. The path to such rational behavior, according to Weber, was often obstructed by spiritual barriers. Historically, magical, and religious forces, and ethical duties deriving from them played a pivotal role in shaping human behavior. When these forces conflicted with the rational behavior essential for economic growth, the development of such rational conduct encountered resistance.

In his examination of the forces that contributed to the spirit of modern economic life, Weber acknowledged the significance of religious influences. However, he was selective in his attribution. He believed that while religious forces were pivotal, not all religious influences were equal in their contribution to the growth of rational economic conduct. In this context, Weber’s perspective notably excluded the European Catholic Church from this tradition of rationalism. Instead, he focused on the unique connection between the spirit of modern economic life and the ethics of ascetic Protestantism. For Weber, Protestantism, especially its ascetic branches, was the primary religious force behind the development of vibrant capitalism in Europe.

Diving deeper into Protestantism, Weber identified the Puritans, a Protestant sect, as the champions leading the charge towards modern global capitalism. According to Weber, several conditions combined with the Puritans’ moral fervor were instrumental in birthing modern Western capitalism. The Puritans’ emphasis on hard work, frugality, and the belief in success as a sign of divine favor provided a conducive environment for the growth of capitalism.

It wasn’t just capitalism that Weber attributed to Protestant ethics. He also believed that the rise of democracy, the strides in science, and the broader idea of modernity were outcomes of a lifestyle rooted in Puritan, Calvinist, and general Protestant ethics.

In summary, Max Weber perceived a distinct superiority within European civilization and attributed its rise, especially its economic and scientific achievements, to its unique religious roots. For him, the Judeo-Christian traditions, particularly ascetic Protestantism and its branches like Puritanism and Calvinism, were the primary drivers behind European capitalism, democracy, and modernity. In this discourse, other significant global religions, and even branches of Christianity like Catholicism, were sidelined as influencers in the journey of European advancement.

The Complexity of Europe’s Religious and Economic History

Max Weber’s perspective on the development of European civilization, especially the rise of capitalism, is a theory that deeply embeds these developments within the Protestant, particularly Calvinist and Puritan, religious ethos. However, a deeper dive into history suggests this view is quite narrow and oversimplified. By focusing solely on the Puritan and Calvinist ideals, Weber’s theory neglected the multifaceted religious and socio-economic history of Europe and other civilizations.

Europe’s Dark Ages and Christian Contradictions

Europe wasn’t always the beacon of rationalism and progressiveness that it’s often portrayed as. From the Dark Ages to premodern times, Christian Europe, including its Protestant sects, was rife with irrational beliefs, internal conflicts, religious intolerance, and even economic restrictions. This era saw pervasive persecution, regression, and superstitions. Therefore, attributing the birth of modernity and capitalism solely to Europe or Protestantism is a misreading of history.

Islam’s Contribution to Rationalism and Economic Growth

Contrary to Weber’s depiction, during these challenging times for Europe, the Muslim world was thriving in many areas that were crucial for the future development of capitalism. The Islamic world promoted principles that closely resemble those of modernity: religious freedom, republican values, free trade, limited monarchy, and rational discourse. Islamic theology itself strongly endorsed the union of spirituality and economic activity. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), being a merchant, exemplified and sanctified trade, profit, and lawful wealth accumulation.

The Christian view, especially the Calvinist perspective, often denounced excessive wealth and material pursuits. On the contrary, Islam found a harmonious blend of pursuing worldly gains while staying within moral boundaries, endorsing good deeds as a path to salvation rather than predestination.

Theological Complexities in Christianity

The Christian world, both Catholic and Protestant, was marked by debates and doctrines revolvingE around predestination, salvation by grace, and the minimal role of good deeds. Protestant reformers like Luther and Calvin downplayed the significance of good works, emphasizing instead divine grace as the primary path to salvation. This strict predestinarian view posits that an individual’s salvation or damnation is pre-determined, and human actions can’t influence this divine decree.

M. H. Mackinnon provides a quote that paints Calvinism, especially its doctrine of predestination, in a grim light. He suggests that Calvinist theology makes it impossible for a devout person to ever be sure of their salvation, as it remains an impenetrable divine mystery.

The Role of Richard Baxter and Capitalism’s Emergence

Although Weber pointed toward figures like Richard Baxter to argue for the association of Puritanism with capitalism, this might be a misguided connection. Baxter’s works, while acknowledging the importance of good deeds, still largely emphasized human’s sinful nature and salvation through divine grace. His views were more about refining Calvinism than a revolutionary promotion of capitalism through good deeds and material pursuits.

The Universality of Economic Pursuits

Weber’s theory raises questions when one considers that long before modern capitalism’s emergence, many cultures and religions, including Catholics, Jews, Muslims, and Hindus, were involved in trade, profit-making, and wealth accumulation. Many of them believed that economic prosperity could coexist with religious and ethical living.

Even though Weber’s theory linking Puritan and Calvinist ethos to the birth of modern capitalism offers an interesting lens to view history, it oversimplifies a complex tapestry of events, ideologies, and inter-cultural exchanges that shaped Europe and the world. When assessing the origins of capitalism, modernity, and scientific progress, it’s essential to consider the diverse contributions of various civilizations and not solely attribute them to one particular religious or cultural ethos. The history of human progress is multifaceted, and every civilization has its unique contributions to offer. That is why a host of scholars, including Mackinnon, Rachfahl, Brentano, Sombart, Simmel, and others have critically examined and often refuted Weber’s Eurocentric and Puritan-centric theories.

Critiques of Weber’s Theory:

• Mackinnon disputes Weber’s claim, stating that after comprehensive analysis, Weber’s theory is fundamentally flawed.
• Samir Amin finds Weber’s admiration of European Christianity or “Christianophilia of Eurocentrism” misleading and asserts that Weber’s arguments appear more precise than they truly are.

Yet, Weber’s theory has managed to influence a notable segment of historians, making it a significant topic of debate.

Support for Eurocentrism: Several historians emphasize the unique European journey to modernity. For example:

• David Landes contends that Europe, or the West, has been the main driver of global development and modernity over the past millennium.
• Trevor-Roper sees Christianity as possessing inherent dynamism that led to its global influence.
• Needham, Elvin, and Braudel spotlight the European journey from the Renaissance, Reformation, Enlightenment, and Scientific Revolution, to the age of modernity as a distinct path.

Alternate Perspectives: Eric Wolf challenges this Eurocentric viewpoint. He believes that such a linear progression oversimplifies history, making it appear as a moral success story where one virtuous entity hands over the baton of progress to the next. He warns against dissecting history into isolated categories, emphasizing the importance of understanding the interconnected nature of human history.

Modern scholars like Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, James Robinson, and Saumitra Jha argue against Weber’s European-centric theories. They place greater emphasis on overseas trade’s role in shaping European institutions, particularly in England.

Impact of Overseas Trade: Acemoglu, Johnson, and Robinson state that post-1500 economic development in Europe correlates with the potential for Atlantic trade. The profits from trade, colonialism, and slavery were significant factors in Europe’s rise, challenging theories that rooted Europe’s ascent in its unique cultural or religious heritage.

For England, overseas trade with the Muslim East led to significant transformations in society, politics, religion, and economy. This trade initiated a questioning of the Old Regime’s traditional religious and political foundations. This period saw a shift towards more pragmatic, rational, and republican ideals, which were more in line with the original, simple, Unitarian teachings of Jesus and early Christianity.

During the tumultuous Thirty Years War, many Europeans interpreted the vast destruction as a biblical prophecy. This belief, combined with King Charles I’s restrictive trade policies and religious persecutions, led to a strong oppositional movement. For these opposition groups, the Muslim East and overseas trade with it symbolized progress and prosperity. They believed their endeavors in trade and exploration reflected biblical prophecies of a golden age of knowledge and justice.

The fusion of this Puritan religious fervor with the virtues of overseas trade played a crucial role in key English historical events like the Civil War, the subsequent Revolution, the Restoration, and the Glorious Revolution. These events, driven by a combination of religious and economic factors, laid the groundwork for broader socio-political reforms.

In sum, the debate around the rise of modern capitalism and democracy in Europe is multi-faceted. While Weber’s theory attributes Europe’s ascent to its Protestant roots, many scholars emphasize the transformative role of overseas trade with the Muslim East. The trade, especially with the dominant Muslim world, introduced new ideas, values, and economic practices, challenging established norms and leading to the broad societal transformations that paved the way for modern European society.