Making of St. Thomas Aquinas

The life and intellectual development of St. Thomas Aquinas were significantly influenced by intricate global, continental, Italian, and intrafaith conflicts. Among the various factors that played a pivotal role in shaping his worldview, the presence of Islam, Muslim communities, and related concerns were of particular significance. These lifelong challenges and engagements left a profound imprint on Thomas' perspective.

Continental Context

In the landscape of European politics, Popes and secular rulers were locked in a struggle for supremacy, influence, and wealth. The Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick II, held titles as King of Germany, Sicily, Italy, and occasionally Jerusalem, showcasing the breadth of his reign. In contrast, the Lombard League, composed of northern Italian cities and the Papacy, stood as a formidable opposition to imperial control. France was under the rule of the House of Capet, with King Louis IX (1214-1270) demonstrating unparalleled devotion to the Catholic Church, earning him the reputation as the most devout Christian monarch of the 13th century and beyond. His unwavering support for the Papacy and his brother Charles of Anjou's ambitions were a source of tension with Emperor Frederick II.

Louis IX

Louis IX's early rule was marked by vulnerability and domestic challenges, yet he faced a more formidable adversary in Henry III of England (1207-1272), who launched an invasion of France in 1228 to reclaim his ancestral rights, sparking a prolonged conflict that lasted until 1234. Henry III fostered a strategic alliance with Frederick II, stirring up hostilities against France. Despite their shared Catholic faith, Frederick II's leanings were more aligned with Saracen (Muslim) culture than with Catholicism, in contrast to Louis IX, whose pious upbringing and close ties with the mendicant orders shaped his religious convictions. Louis IX's commitment to the Church and the mendicant orders was solidified in 1245, when Frederick II's capture of clerics en route to the Council of Lyon led to his excommunication by Pope Innocent IV. Louis IX's vow to lead a crusade in 1245 highlighted his dedication to the Church, culminating in the Seventh Crusade to Egypt, which ended in his capture and brief imprisonment by the Muslim Mamluks, despite later forming alliances with them.

Frederick II's Death

Frederick II's death in 1250 after a protracted conflict with the Papacy opened a political vacuum that Henry III sought to fill by supporting his son Edmund's claim to the Sicilian throne, with Pope Innocent IV's backing. However, the financial strain of these ambitions, coupled with Manfred's resistance and the subsequent demands of Pope Alexander IV, highlighted the ongoing struggles for power and influence within and beyond Italy.

Crusades and King Louis IX 

The era was characterized by the intricate interplay of religious crusades, political machinations, and theological debates. King Louis IX's leadership of the Seventh and Eighth Crusades, despite the setbacks and the ultimate tragedy of his death in Tunis, underscored the era's complex dynamics of faith, warfare, and diplomacy. Similarly, the successful Christian reconquests in Spain, known as the Reconquista, marked a significant shift in power dynamics, with the establishment of Christian kingdoms and the strategic engagement with Muslim populations through diplomacy and religious conversion efforts led by the Dominican and Franciscan orders.

Thomas Aquinas, situated at the heart of these tumultuous times, engaged with the era's leading figures and debates, offering theological insights that reflected the profound challenges and questions of the day. His works addressed the coexistence of Christians and Muslims, the role of the mendicant orders, and the theological implications of the Crusades' outcomes, highlighting the enduring struggle for spiritual and temporal authority in a rapidly changing world.

Italian Context

During the formative years of Thomas Aquinas, Italy was embroiled in relentless conflict between the Papacy and the Hohenstaufen Dynasty, with the latter's armies bolstered by substantial contingents of Muslim soldiers. This period, marked by the reigns of Frederick II, his son Conrad IV, his grandson Conradin, and his illegitimate son Manfred, saw fierce battles against the forces of the papacy, the Lombards, and the French. The Staufen's alliance with Saracen forces was a topic of widespread controversy across Europe, criticized by religious and secular leaders alike. Thomas's own family experienced the turmoil of shifting allegiances, moving from the Emperor's to the Papal side, a decision that led to severe personal repercussions including the execution of one of Thomas's brothers for treason by Frederick II.

The ongoing strife deeply affected Thomas, shaping his intellectual endeavors to seek harmony between divine, natural, and human law amid the era's pervasive legal and political upheavals. As monarchs and popes aspired towards absolute authority, creating a unified legal system that often clashed with established local traditions, Thomas aimed to reconcile these divergences through his writings, drawing from various sources to tailor solutions that adhered to Christian doctrine and responded to the needs of the time.

Papal Context

The papacy itself was not immune to the era's instability, undergoing a period of significant transition marked by a rapid succession of nine popes during Thomas's lifetime. This instability was compounded by internal divisions within the cardinalate, external pressures from powerful dynasties, and the influence of French politics on papal decisions. High-profile incidents, such as the forced and tumultuous papal elections, underscored the volatility of the time. Popes like Innocent IV were compelled to operate from exile due to the hostilities, and the papal office often leaned on French support for protection against the Hohenstaufen threat, leading to a predominance of French influence within the Church.

This tumultuous backdrop profoundly impacted Thomas Aquinas, who was acutely aware of the detrimental effects of the papacy's entanglement in secular conflicts, its internal corruptions, and the strain these issues placed on the spiritual and material well-being of the Christian community. The challenges of the papacy, from divisive elections to financial extortions, and the overarching struggle for power, painted a complex picture of the Church in the 13th century—a time of both theological flourishing and significant turmoil. Thomas's work, therefore, can be seen as a response to these conditions, striving to provide a theological and philosophical foundation that could offer clarity and guidance amidst the profound uncertainties of his day.

Academic Context

The founding of medieval universities was a pivotal moment in Thomas Aquinas's intellectual development. The University of Paris, established in 1200 by King Philip II and endorsed by Pope Innocent III in 1215, alongside the University of Naples, founded by Frederick II in 1224, represented significant advancements from the era of cathedral schools and abbeys that focused primarily on biblical studies. These universities marked a shift towards a broader curriculum, although initially, they continued the tradition of a Bible-centric education.

The introduction of Greek and Muslim philosophical texts, particularly the works of Aristotle and the commentaries of Ibn Rushd (Averroes), at the University of Naples, was a strategic move by Frederick II aimed at challenging the dominance of papal-influenced academic institutions. This initiative fostered a culture of rational discourse and philosophical inquiry that was somewhat independent of ecclesiastical oversight. The arrival of Aristotelian thought, coupled with Ibn Rushd's rationalist interpretations, in Paris during the early 1220s sparked an intellectual revolution. By 1255, Aristotle's works were mandated reading at the University of Paris, elevating Averroes' commentaries to central texts in the university's curriculum. This development signaled the onset of intellectual tensions between the ecclesiastical establishment and the proponents of rationalism.

Latin Averroists

Latin Averroists, including Siger of Brabant and Boetius of Dacia, sought to harmonize Aristotelian philosophy with Christian doctrine, challenging traditional ecclesiastical teachings with their embrace of rationalism and political activism. This movement represented a perceived threat to the conservative Christian order, prompting a vigorous response from the Mendicant orders, particularly the Dominicans and Franciscans, who positioned themselves as defenders of orthodoxy against the rise of what they viewed as heterodox teachings.

The controversies surrounding Latin Averroism, including debates over its characterization as an organized movement versus a collection of individual perspectives, underscore the significant ideological divide it represented. The harsh persecution of Latin Averroists by the Church, including academic censure, exile, and execution, highlights the extent to which these intellectual currents challenged the status quo. Figures such as John of Dry Town, Boetius of Dacia, and Siger of Brabant faced severe repercussions for their teachings, underscoring the perilous nature of advocating for philosophical independence from theological constraints during this period.

In summary, the emergence of universities and the introduction of rationalist philosophy into the academic curriculum represented a watershed in medieval intellectual history. This period saw the struggle between established ecclesiastical authority and emerging scholarly movements advocating for a more rational and independent approach to knowledge, with Thomas Aquinas and his contemporaries deeply embedded in these transformative debates.

See details in my book "St. Thomas Aquinas and Muslim Thought."