Muslim Contributions to the Scientific Revolution

Introduction

The relationship between Islam, Muslims, and Islamic civilization and their impact on Western societies, particularly in the context of early modern England, is a topic of significant historical importance. This essay delves into the multifaceted interactions and exchanges that took place during this period, challenging the notion of Islam as antithetical to progress, modernity, and enlightenment. It explores how Islamic knowledge, culture, and commerce played a fundamental role in shaping early modern England’s scientific and intellectual landscape.

Early Seventeenth-Century England: A Historical Overview

To understand the extent of Islamic influence on early modern England, it is essential to grasp the state of England during the early seventeenth century. At that time, England was a relatively small country with a population of around five million, marked by several challenges and limitations. It faced issues such as unfavorable weather, dietary deficiencies, an agrarian-based economy, limited natural resources, high mortality rates due to diseases like bubonic plague, primitive living conditions, social instability, alcoholism, gambling, and the dominance of an absolutist and persecutory Church and state. England was characterized by stark socio-economic disparities, a deeply divided society, and ongoing tensions between the Crown, gentry, nobility, and merchants. This constant power struggle contributed to English instability and anxiety.

Furthermore, early seventeenth-century England lacked significant state-building efforts, scientific traditions, educational institutions, and medical facilities. The absence of chairs in mathematics, astronomy, and chemistry at prestigious institutions like Oxford and Cambridge reflected the limited emphasis on these sciences. In essence, England was a medieval, underdeveloped, and somewhat isolated nation, struggling with religious tensions between Catholics and Protestants and a lack of religious freedom and liberty of conscience.

Early Interactions with the Islamic World

Contrary to the prevailing view of early modern England as insular, it had early interactions with the Islamic world. Queen Elizabeth I’s request for English trade in the Ottoman Empire was granted in 1580, leading to significant developments. English Levant Company merchants, traders, and affiliates established themselves in the Ottoman Empire. They immersed themselves in Turkish culture, adopting Turkish clothing and language. They also engaged in trade, acquired manuscripts, and transported them back to England.

King Charles I took note of the value of Arabic and Persian manuscripts and introduced a knowledge tax on the Levant Company’s voyages. “The King has also considered that there is a great deal of learning fit to be known written in Arabic, and great scarcity of Arabic and Persian books in this country, wherefore he requires that every ship of that company at every voyage shall bring home one Arabic or Persian manuscript book, to be delivered to the master of the company, and by him to the Archbishop of Canterbury, who shall dispose of them as the King shall think fit…” This marked a significant shift in England’s attitude toward Islamic knowledge. The Arabic department was established at Oxford in 1636, followed by Cambridge, demonstrating the growing interest in Oriental languages and sciences.

The Role of English Chaplains and Ambassadors

English chaplains, ambassadors, and other personnel living and working in the Islamic world played a pivotal role in facilitating cultural and intellectual exchanges. These individuals learned Arabic, Turkish, Persian, and other Oriental languages during their time abroad and, upon their return, assumed positions of influence in England. For example, Sir Dudley North, a prominent Levant Company member, became the Sheriff of London, served in Parliament, and held positions in the treasury and customs. English ambassador and merchant Sir John Finch was from a noble English family which filled the highest offices in England. Sir John Baines was also well connected with movers and shakers of his time.

Their detailed reports and correspondence with English officials and Enlightenment figures at home contributed to changes in English state and society. These interactions helped foster a better understanding of Islam, Ottoman government, and culture among the English elite. Similarly, the East India Company’s merchants, chaplains, and ambassadors played a crucial role in connecting England with India, influencing English fashion, culture, and society through the importation of textiles, colors, and patterns.

The Economic and Political Impact

Both the Levant Company and the East India Company wielded significant influence in London and across England. The cash-strapped English Crown and later the confrontational Parliament depended heavily on the customs duties, taxes, financial support, and loans provided by these companies. The financial support from merchants and overseas trade played a pivotal role in sustaining the English monarchy and government. Thus, the economic and political impact of these interactions was profound.

The Role of Oriental Manuscripts

One of the most tangible forms of interaction between England and the Islamic world was the exchange of manuscripts. English travelers and merchants brought back Arabic, Persian, and Turkish manuscripts, which were highly valued by members of the Royal Society, Gresham College professors, and natural scientists. These manuscripts were prized not for their religious content but for their cultural and scientific value.

The establishment of Arabic chairs at Oxford and Cambridge in the early seventeenth century underscored the significance attached to Oriental languages and sciences. Notable figures like William Bedwell and John Greaves learned Arabic, and their contributions to scholarship extended beyond translation to areas such as mathematics and geometry. Oriental manuscripts, especially those on quantitative, natural, alchemical, and medical subjects, were instrumental in shaping English mathematicians, physicians, and natural scientists.

The Transformation of English Science

English science underwent a transformation during this period, thanks in large part to the influence of Islamic knowledge. The traditional authority-based Aristotelian scholasticism and biblical interpretations of nature gave way to experimental geography, empirical natural philosophy, and quantitative mathematical sciences. English scientists, heavily influenced by Eastern mathematical sciences and overseas trade-related exploration voyages, challenged the old Ptolemaic system.

The Scientific Revolution, often associated with Western scientific progress, was, in reality, a result of global encounters, cross-cultural diffusions, assimilations, and constructions. Early modern England’s exposure to the Muslim East played a crucial role in setting the stage for the country’s scientific, socio-political, and religious revolutions.

Prominent Figures and Their Contributions

Several key figures exemplify the influence of Islamic knowledge on English science and culture during this period. Robert Boyle, an Anglo-Irish natural philosopher and chemist, and one of the wealthiest individuals in England, learned Arabic to understand Arabic manuscripts. He sought the assistance of Arabists like Edward Pococke, John Greaves, and Thomas Hyde in translating these manuscripts. Boyle’s natural, experimental, and empirical approach to science was developed in conjunction with Eastern ideas, sciences, and cultures.

Edward Bernard, a mathematician and astronomer, undertook the study of Arabic and integrated Arabic observations significantly into his work in astronomy. He recognized the value of Arabic contributions to the field and incorporated them into his own research.

John Wallis, a founding fellow of the Royal Society and the Savilian Professor of Geometry at Oxford, not only taught John Locke during Locke’s undergraduate years at Oxford but also played a crucial role in translating Arabic manuscripts. Wallis frequently quoted Arabic mathematicians in his lectures, demonstrating the importance of Arabic mathematical heritage in the development of Western mathematics.

Edmond Halley, known for giving his name to Halley’s Comet, engaged in translating Apollonius’s “Cutting-off of a Ratio” into Latin. This work had been lost in its original Greek form but was preserved through an Arabic translation. Halley’s efforts helped reintroduce this important mathematical work to Western scholars.

Edmond Castell dedicated eighteen years to developing extensive dictionaries of Oriental languages, including Arabic. His work was instrumental in making Arabic texts more accessible to scholars in the West.

Another noteworthy example is Edmund Halley, who, at the age of 50, undertook the study of Arabic to translate and digest the works of Muslim astronomers like al-Battani. Halley’s commitment to understanding Arabic texts reflected the recognition of the valuable contributions made by Muslim scholars in the field of astronomy.

Many fellows of the Royal Society received their education at Westminster School in London, where Arabic was taught as a language. This educational background facilitated their engagement with Arabic texts and their integration into the scientific community.

The Royal Society itself possessed a substantial collection of Muslim manuscripts, underscoring the society’s commitment to preserving and studying Islamic knowledge. Additionally, the Royal Society elected three Muslim fellows in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries: Muhammad ibn Haddu, the Moroccan ambassador to Charles II’s court; Mohammed ibn Ali Abgali; and Cassem Alqiada Aga of Tripoli. These appointments reflected a recognition of the importance of Arabic knowledge and perspectives and Muslim contributions to the scientific community.

Alchemy, recognized as a legitimate Arab science in England, was believed to have been mastered by Arab scholars. This perception led figures like Francis Bacon, Robert Boyle, John Locke, and Isaac Newton, among many other Royal Society fellows, to become deeply interested in Eastern alchemy and knowledge. For instance, Newton drew parallels between gravity as an active principle and the active alchemical agent, illustrating the influence of alchemical thought on his scientific theories. Similarly, Boyle’s lifelong fascination with Arab alchemical experiments significantly impacted his scientific discoveries and chemical procedures.

Prominent individuals, including Francis Bacon, John Comenius, Samuel Hartlib, John Dury, Isaac Newton, and even King Charles II, dedicated much of their time to conducting experiments in their laboratories using Arabic books that had been translated into Latin and English. They believed that Muslims held the key to secrets like the transformation of base metals into gold.

Foreign travelers to the Muslim Orient, such as the French Huguenot traveler Jean Chardin, were welcomed into the fellowship of the English Royal Society due to their knowledge and experience of the MuslimEast. This exchange of ideas and expertise further emphasized the significance of cross-cultural interactions in the scientific community.

Isaac Newton (1642-1727), a renowned figure in the world of science and philosophy, maintained a close friendship with the philosopher John Locke who was a proto-Muslim Unitarian. Newton himself leaned towards Unitarianism with a distinct influence from Islamic thought.

Newton’s connection to the Islamic world extended through his association with Dr. J. Covel (1638-1722), who served as the chaplain for the Levant Company in Constantinople in 1670. Dr. Covel’s extensive travels within the Ottoman Empire provided him with opportunities to collect numerous scientific manuscripts. It is highly likely that Covel’s experiences in the Ottoman Empire contributed to the development of his pro-Muslim and heterodox views.

Upon returning from Constantinople, Covel assumed the role of chaplain to the Princess of Orange in The Hague, and later became the vice-chancellor of the same Cambridge University where Newton was a student. During Covel’s time in Constantinople, Newton maintained a prolific correspondence with Dr. Covel, resulting in a wealth of documented exchanges. These discussions with Covel proved invaluable sources of knowledge for Newton, enhancing his understanding of the Ottomans, their scientific achievements, and their religious practices.

Notably, Newton’s academic journey was further influenced by his mentor, Dr. Isaac Barrow, who had also spent significant time in Istanbul and Izmir while studying mathematics and calculus. When Barrow vacated his position as the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge, Newton succeeded him, solidifying his academic legacy.

Newton’s enthusiasm for alchemy, a precursor to modern chemistry, is well-documented. He drew upon Arabic sources, such as Achmet’s Arabic dream book, for inspiration. Moreover, he often employed metaphorical interpretations of biblical prophecies based on Oriental knowledge, which reflected his unique approach to science, spirituality and religious transmissions.

The influence of Islam on Isaac Newton’s intellectual journey is evident in his association with Dr. J. Covel, his engagement with Islamic manuscripts, and his interactions with mentors who had experience in the Islamic world. These connections highlight that Islam played a significant role in shaping Newton’s perspectives within the realms of science, socio-politics, and religion during a transformative period in English history.Top of Form

Conclusion

In conclusion, early modern England’s scientific and intellectual development was significantly influenced by its interactions with the Islamic world. Contrary to the view of Islam as antithetical to progress, modernity, and enlightenment, this period saw the exchange of knowledge, culture, and commerce between England and the Muslim East. Islamic knowledge, manuscripts, and sciences played a fundamental role in shaping English science, philosophy, and culture.

Therefore, it is imperative to acknowledge the substantial contribution of Islamic civilization to early modern England’s scientific and intellectual progress, challenging misconceptions about the relationship between Islam and the West.