Muslim Influences on St. Thomas Aquinas

St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), was an Italian Dominican friar, philosopher, Catholic priest, and Doctor of the Church, born in 1225 near Aquino, in what is now Italy. He is considered one of the most important figures in Western philosophy and theology, particularly within the Christian tradition. Aquinas is best known for his theological synthesis of Christian doctrine with Aristotelian philosophy, a project that earned him the title of the "Angelic Doctor" within the Catholic Church.

Importance in Christian Thought

Integration of Faith and Reason: Aquinas is perhaps most celebrated for his comprehensive effort to harmonize faith and reason. He argued that truth is known through both faith (revelation) and reason (natural light of human intellect), and that these two sources of knowledge ultimately complement rather than contradict each other. This principle has had a lasting impact on subsequent Christian thought, particularly in the Catholic tradition, where it has helped to shape the understanding of the relationship between science, philosophy, and theology.

Summa Theologica: His most famous work, the "Summa Theologica," is a monumental achievement in systematic theology. It covers almost every aspect of Christian theology of the time, from the existence and nature of God to ethics and human behavior. The "Summa" remains a key reference for theologians, philosophers, and students of the Catholic faith, offering profound insights into the Christian understanding of God and creation.

Philosophical Contributions: Aquinas was a masterful philosopher whose work extended beyond strictly theological concerns. He made significant contributions to metaphysics, ethics, and political philosophy. His thoughts on being, essence, and the act of existence have influenced not just theological but also secular philosophical discourse.

Aristotelian Synthesis: Aquinas is known for his synthesis of Christian theology with Aristotelian philosophy. He utilized Aristotle's philosophical framework to articulate and explain Christian doctrines, arguing that Aristotle’s works could be used to understand the Christian faith more deeply. This was a groundbreaking approach at a time when the Aristotelian corpus was being reintegrated into Western Europe from Muslim Spain.

Influence on the Church: Aquinas was canonized as a saint in 1323, and his influence on the Catholic Church has been profound and enduring. His philosophy and theology have been embraced by numerous popes and theologians, and he was declared a Doctor of the Church in 1567. His work laid the groundwork for much of the Catholic Church’s teachings and dogma.

Ecumenical Appeal: Beyond the Catholic Church, Aquinas's work has had a broad appeal. His rational approach to theology and his method of using philosophical argument to explore faith have been influential in various Christian denominations as well as in non-Christian contexts.

St. Thomas Aquinas's contributions to Christian thought are vast and deep. His efforts to reconcile faith with reason, along with his systematic approach to theology and philosophy, have made him a central figure in the intellectual tradition of the Christian world. His works continue to be studied and revered for their insight, depth, and influence on Western thought.

Islamic Influences on St. Thomas

St. Thomas, renowned as a pivotal figure in medieval philosophical theology and a cornerstone of scholasticism, drew significantly from the integrated thought of Muslim scholars. His works frequently cite Ibn Rushd, Ibn Sina, al-Farabi, and al-Ghazali, reflecting his engagement and dialogue with their ideas. Aquinas delved into Latin translations of their texts, weaving their philosophical insights and methodologies into his comprehensive endeavor.

As A Theologian

As a theologian deeply invested in utilizing philosophy to underpin his theological pursuits, Aquinas embraced and adapted various philosophical notions to bridge the gap between theology and philosophy. This endeavor mirrored the efforts of Muslim philosophers and theologians who, centuries prior to Aquinas, embarked on a similar quest to harmonize philosophical inquiry with theological principles, providing Aquinas with a venerable blueprint to follow. Distinctly gravitating towards Aristotelian philosophy over the Platonic leanings of St. Augustine and other early Church Fathers, Aquinas sought to align Christian theology with Aristotelian thought.

Muslim Sicily

His initial exposure to Aristotle occurred during his studies at the University of Naples, situated in a region of Norman Sicily that had experienced nearly three centuries of Muslim rule (831-1072), with a lasting Muslim presence even after Norman conquest. The Norman sovereigns, particularly Frederick II, championed the sciences of the Muslim world, fostering the translation of scientific and philosophical texts from Arabic into Latin. This intercultural exchange prominently included the dissemination of Aristotelian philosophy, a tradition richly cultivated by Muslim scholars such as Abu Nasr al-Farabi, Abu Ali Sina, Abu al-Walid Ibn Rushd, and Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, who had thoroughly engaged with Aristotle’s work through commentary and interpretation well before Aquinas's time.

Twelveth Century Translations

The 12th century marked a zenith in the translation and transfer of this tradition into Latin, propelled by the increased interactions between cultures during the Spanish and Holy Land crusades. Situated in Southern Italy, particularly Naples, Aquinas was at the heart of this confluence of ideas, benefiting from the region's exposure to Muslim philosophical thought. Gordon Leff characterizes the intellectual transition from the 12th to the 13th century as moving from isolation to meaningful contact with the Islamic world. Gordon Leff suggests that “intellectually, the difference between [the] 12th and 13th century was, at its broadest, the difference between isolation from the Islamic world and contact with it.”

Muslim Theologians and Rational Philosophy

Muslim theologians like Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (1058-1111), Muhammad bin Abd al-Karim al-Shahrastani (1086-1153), and Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (1149-1210) delved into the works of Aristotle and other Muslim philosophers, aiming to critique aspects they found inconsistent with Islamic theology. Differing from their philosopher counterparts, these theologians prioritized divine revelation over human reason, elevating theology and faith above secular philosophy while still acknowledging the value of rational thought as a secondary consideration. Their efforts led to a theological-philosophical framework that somewhat integrated Greek philosophical thought, albeit without fully embracing the rationalism characteristic of Muslim philosophers. This approach marked a more conservative theistic perspective compared to the pronounced rationalism of the philosophers, yet both groups sought to align their work with Islamic revelation and contribute to the faith, despite criticisms from orthodox figures like al-Ghazali against certain philosophical interpretations as contrary to Islam. St. Thomas imitated Muslim theologians in many aspects of his philosophical theology.

Similarly, the medieval Jewish community grappled with reconciling faith and philosophy, facing challenges more pronounced than those in the Muslim context. For example, the anthropomorphic and sometimes corporeal descriptions of God in the Hebrew Bible posed significant philosophical dilemmas, further complicated by the text's varied authorship and the presence of polytheistic, henotheistic, and monotheistic elements. This complexity made the Hebrew Bible's monotheism appear less defined compared to the Qur'an's clear stance, leading to criticism from Muslim scholars. Jewish theologians such as Saadia Gaon and Moses Maimonides, working within a predominantly Muslim cultural milieu, employed methods similar to Muslim theologians to reconcile these differences, often mirroring Muslim philosophical efforts in their own work.

In Christianity, the divide between faith and reason, or theology and philosophy, was broader compared to Islam and Judaism. Christian theological thought, deeply influenced by Neoplatonism and Augustinian Platonism, emphasized salvation and divine mysteries over empirical inquiry, often sidelining natural curiosity in favor of faith. Until the 12th century, much of Aristotle's non-logical works remained inaccessible to Latin Christianity, only becoming widely available through translations from Arabic, facilitated by Muslim scholars. By the 13th century, the commentaries of Ibn Rushd (Averroes) on Aristotle had become so influential that he was simply known as "the Commentator." The works of al-Farabi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and al-Ghazali, translated into Latin, became essential resources for Latin theologians. St. Thomas Aquinas, in his pursuit to integrate Christian theology with Aristotelian philosophy, inevitably engaged with this rich tradition of Muslim Aristotelianism.

St. Thomas's work shows the impact of Islamic scholarship, particularly through his engagement with the writings of three prominent Muslim philosophers: Avicenna (Ibn Sina), Alpharabius (al-Farabi), and Averroes (Ibn Rushd).

Avicenna (Ibn Sina, 980–1037): A Persian polymath who made significant contributions to various fields, including philosophy, medicine, and science. Avicenna’s works on metaphysics, especially his "Book of Healing," were central to the development of Scholasticism in medieval Europe. Aquinas frequently referred to Avicenna’s ideas on existence, essence, and God’s nature, integrating them into his own theological framework while also critically evaluating and modifying them to fit within a Christian context.

Abu Nasr Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Farabi: al-Farabi known in the West as Alpharabius (c. 872–950 AD), was a renowned medieval philosopher, logician, and musician of Persian origin. He is considered one of the greatest Islamic philosophers of his time and has been referred to as the "Second Teacher" in philosophy, Aristotle being the "First Teacher." Al-Farabi made significant contributions to philosophy, logic, political science, and music theory, integrating elements of Platonic and Aristotelian thought into Islamic philosophy and laying the groundwork for later Islamic philosophers, including Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and Averroes (Ibn Rushd).

Contributions to Philosophy and Logic

Al-Farabi's work in philosophy and logic was groundbreaking. He wrote commentaries on Aristotle's works and developed his own philosophical system, which combined Aristotelian logic and metaphysics with Neoplatonism. His major philosophical themes include the nature of the universe, the structure of society, and the role of the virtuous ruler. He sought to harmonize reason and revelation, advocating for a rational approach to understanding the world while also upholding the importance of prophetic knowledge.

Political Philosophy

In political philosophy, al-Farabi is best known for his works on the ideal state, particularly outlined in "The Opinions of the Inhabitants of a Virtuous City," where he describes his vision of a utopian society governed by reason and led by a philosopher-king. This society would be characterized by justice, happiness, and the pursuit of intellectual and spiritual perfection. His ideas on leadership and the organization of society had a profound influence on Islamic and Western political thought.

Legacy

Al-Farabi's legacy in the Islamic world and beyond is substantial. His efforts to reconcile different philosophical traditions and his comprehensive approach to knowledge have left a lasting impact on Islamic philosophy, medieval thought, and the Renaissance. His works were translated into Hebrew and Latin, influencing Jewish and Christian thinkers and contributing to the development of medieval European philosophy. Al-Farabi's interdisciplinary contributions highlight his role as a bridge between cultures and epochs, making him a pivotal figure in the history of philosophy. St. Thomas was deeply influenced by works of al Farabi.

Averroes (Ibn Rushd, 1126–1198): A Spanish-Arab philosopher and thinker known for his extensive commentaries on Aristotle. Averroes attempted to reconcile Aristotle's philosophy with Islamic theology, which had a profound impact on the intellectual landscape of medieval Europe. Aquinas engaged deeply with Averroes’ commentaries, especially in his own commentaries on Aristotle. Aquinas often found himself in disagreement with Averroes, particularly on the nature of the intellect and the relationship between reason and faith. However, the engagement with Averroes’ work allowed Aquinas to sharpen his own arguments and contribute to the development of a distinctively Christian Aristotelianism.

Aquinas's engagement with these and other Muslim scholars exemplifies the rich cross-cultural intellectual exchanges that took place during the Middle Ages. Through translations of their works into Latin, Muslim philosophers played a crucial role in transmitting Aristotle's philosophy and their own original contributions to the Latin West. This transmission facilitated the development of Scholasticism, of which Aquinas is a prime representative. Aquinas's ability to incorporate, critique, and build upon the works of Muslim philosophers demonstrates the interconnectedness of medieval Christian and Islamic intellectual traditions.

For details see my book "St. Thomas Aquinas and Muslim Thought."