Satanic Verses: Striking A Deep Chord, Part 3
Drawing Wrong Parallels
In the theological discourse of Judaism and Christianity, there is an evident progression towards monotheism, an evolving concept of divine transcendence, and a trend towards universalism. The Biblical narratives engage with the notion of multiple deities, their respective powers, domains, and forms of worship, and their roles in governing the cosmos. Yahweh, the deity revered by Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, is portrayed as a supreme entity specifically allied with the Hebrew people. However, the Hebrew Bible (also known as the Christian Old Testament) lacks explicit advocacy for a stringent, ethical, universal, and transcendental form of monotheism. The initial Biblical depiction of God aligns more closely with monolatry or henotheism. It is primarily the later Hebrew Prophets, predominantly post-8th century BC, who championed a strict, ethical, and transcendental monotheism. Biblical scholars generally concur that the Hebrew Bible exhibits an evolutionary trajectory and progressive elements.
Many Western scholars, influenced by modern biblical research and criticism, seek to apply similar evolutionary and progressive paradigms to the Quranic texts and Islamic doctrine. They approach the Qur’an with preconceived notions, imposing arbitrary and foreign interpretations that are inconsistent with the Quranic worldview and cosmology. This leads to exaggerating minor issues and relying on unfounded or spurious narratives.
Isra'iliyyat
It is acknowledged that Islamic literature contains "Isra'iliyyat," narratives derived or adapted from Biblical or Talmudic sources, or fabricated by early Jewish and Christian converts to Islam. Regrettably, some Muslim historians, exegetes, and Hadith scholars have incorporated these narratives without sufficient critical analysis, impacting the overall understanding of Islamic doctrines. Scholars like Imam al Dhahabi have identified and dismissed many such unreliable reports. However, Western scholars, orientalists, and missionaries often exploit these questionable narratives to draw false parallels between Islam and the Judeo-Christian traditions, arguing for a shared evolutionary and progressive religious framework. This perspective presupposes that religious doctrines and institutions are human constructions, not divine revelations. It posits that religion is a byproduct of a pre-scientific era, now rendered obsolete by modern science and technology, and suggests that the Muslim world, by adhering to traditional Islamic beliefs and practices, is trapped in a medieval mindset, hindering its ability to compete with the modern world.
These scholars endeavor to educate the Muslim world, hoping to bring Islamic thought in line with the fluid and uncertain nature of Judeo-Christian traditions, thereby encouraging Muslims to either abandon their faith or adapt it as the Jewish and Christian communities have. This approach overlooks the fundamental differences between Islamic and Judeo-Christian practices and institutions, particularly in terms of uncertainties, progressive evolutionary elements, and authoritarianism. Islam emerged as a corrective to the perceived failings of Judeo-Christian traditions, establishing a coherent, rational, and well-structured faith capable of addressing spiritual, socio-economic, and political concerns. The early Islamic community, guided by Islamic principles, was at the forefront of advancing freedoms, rights, science, art, and civilization. The contemporary challenges faced by the Muslim world are attributed not to adherence to Islamic teachings, but to a departure from them. Consequently, the Muslim concept of revival and reformation starkly contrasts with Western notions, emphasizing the preservation of original religious doctrines, scriptures, and moral values. Therefore, Western attempts to apply biblical critical methodologies to dissect Islamic scripture and tradition, aiming to draw parallels with the Judeo-Christian evolutionary paths, are met with strong resistance. This resistance is rooted in the Muslim conviction that divine word, guidance, and systems are eternally relevant and practical, safeguarded by divine power.
Considering the aforementioned context, it is pertinent to examine the third significant implication arising from the analysis of the "Satanic Verses" report by Western scholars and orientalists. This aspect is intricately linked to their hypothesis that Islam, akin to other major monotheistic religions, underwent an evolutionary process in its conception of monotheism. They suggest that Prophet Muhammad's doctrinal views evolved in response to the changing geopolitical landscape, culminating in a refined, transcendental monotheism only after political negotiations were unsuccessful. This proposition strikes a profoundly sensitive note, as it challenges the foundational integrity of Islamic theology. Such a claim warrants a thorough and comprehensive rebuttal, considering its potential impact on undermining the entire structure of Islamic belief.
Percieved Evolutionary Monotheism
Now we come to the more serious issue of Prophet Muhammad’s monotheism and his perceived compromises. Rodinson has dubbed it as “henotheism”. To Watt, “his monotheism was originally, like that of his more enlightened contemporaries, somewhat vague, and in particular was not so strict that the recognition of inferior divine beings was felt to be incompatible with it.”
Neither in the Qur’anic text nor in the authentic traditions of Muhammad is anything found of henotheism or vague monotheism, no room whatsoever is allowed for inferior divine beings. The Qur’anic text is vociferous against such claims. The strict monotheism peculiar to the later Islamic tradition had been propagated by Muhammad from the very beginning of his mission in Makkah. Most of the Qur’an (about two thirds) had been revealed in Makkah. The earliest surahs of the Qur’an emphatically asserted the Oneness of Almighty God and declared worship of others besides Him as blasphemous and heretical. According to Stanley Lane-Poole: “During the years of struggle and persecution of Mekka.... ninety out of the 114 chapters of the Koran were revealed, amounting to about two-third of the whole book. All these chapters are inspired with but one great design, and are in strong contrast with the complicated character of the later chapters issued at Medina. In the Mekka chapters Mohammed appears in the unalloyed character of prophet; he has not yet assumed the functions of a statesman and law-giver. His object is not to give men a code or a constitution. But call them to the worship of the One God. This is the only aim of Mekkan speeches.... Every chapter is directed simply to the grand design of the Prophet’s life to convince men of the unutterable majesty of the One God, who brooks no rivals…”
It is surprising that a scholar like Watt would have the audacity to claim that there is little concerning idols mentioned throughout the whole Makkan period and that acceptance of the Makkan goddesses as lower divine angelic beings capable of intercession on behalf of their admirers was something not incompatible with Muhammad’s “vague monotheism”. This is akin to calling black, white, and vice versa. To attempt to establish a theory whilst ignoring every fact on the ground, beggars belief. It is illogical to even think that out of the two-thirds of the Qur’an revealed at Makkah, there is little concerning idols or idol worship. There is for instance, surah 112 al-Ikhlas, which not only forms the cornerstone of strict Islamic monotheism and God’s transcendence, but is also a measuring rod against all kinds of polytheism, henotheism and paganism. German professor of the Quran, Noldeke, places this surah in the very first Makkan period. H. Hirschfeld writes, “I feel inclined to place it among the first revelations.” Muir argues that it was the 20th chapter revealed in Makkah hence putting it in the very early phase of Muhammad’s mission. The same is said by Muir and Noldeke with regard to Surah al-Kafirun (109), the mere recitation of which disavows Muhammad from all kinds of shirk (polytheism).
There is a consensus among Muslim scholars that Surah Yusuf (chapter 12) is without doubt a Makkan chapter. Muir, Noldeke, and Grimme also agree that it was revealed in Makkah. Verse 40 of Surah Yusuf clearly states: “Whatever ye worship apart from Him is nothing but names which ye have named, ye and your fathers, – for which Allah hath sent down no authority; the Command is for none but Allah: He hath commanded that ye worship none but Him: that is the right religion, but most men understand not...” (12:40)
How else could the Qur’an have possibly stated its position with regards to idolatry and polytheism? There is no “vague monotheism” either in this verse or the entire Qur’an. Conversely, what there is in point of fact is a strict monotheism to the very definition of the term. In addition to those mentioned, there exist many other Makkan chapters which address the issue aggressively and comprehensively. The case against those who would indicate otherwise is irrefutable.
Furthermore, what on earth was Prophet Muhammad being persecuted, tortured, and opposed for, by the Makkan pagans, if not for his strict monotheism and stern opposition to polytheism? The Prophet was constantly being ordered by the Makkans to stop opposing their gods and respect the religion of their forefathers. It was undoubtedly his strict monotheism and stern opposition to worship of any person or object besides God that caused him such opposition in Makkah and such brutal, inhumane retaliation. Muhammad never compromised on the issue of the Oneness, Uniqueness and Transcendence of God, neither in Makkah nor in Madinah. T. Noldeke observes: “Muhammad’s single aim in the Meccan suras is to convert the people, by means of persuasion, from their false gods to the one God. To whatever point the discourse is directed this always remains the ground thought; but instead of seeking to convince the reason of his hearers by logical proofs, he employs the art of rhetoric to work upon their minds through the imagination. Thus he glorifies God, describes His working in Nature and History, and ridicules on the other hand the impotence of the idols. Especially important are the descriptions of the everlasting bliss of the pious and the torment of the wicked: these, particularly the latter, must be regarded as one of the mightiest factors in the propagation of Islam...”
Developed Monotheism
According to Julian Obermann: “In early Surahs we have to do with oracle-like pronouncements of a prophet and visionary.... In contents, his early message is of extreme simplicity, it is marked by complete absence of either ritual or legal elements of any kind. What it offers is an outline, the barest rudiments of monotheistic theology. God is One, He has no equal; He is the creator of the universe and His care provides bountiful sustenance for man and beast (argument from creation): in the past He had punished people for their wrongdoing (argument from history); in the future He will judge man according to his deeds, rewarding obedience with the delights of paradise and requiting disobedience with the scourge of Hellfire.”
Reuben Levy: “The earliest divine manifestations commanded him to “recite” what he heard. It was followed by others which bade him denounce the idolatrous beliefs and practices of his fellow townsmen, to whom he was to reveal a higher faith and a purer system of life. The central point of the new faith was that there is no God but Allah, a deity which was already known in the Arabian pantheon but who was henceforth to be not supreme, but unique.”
Francesco Gabrieli: “...In this, the earliest, and the following short, ecstatic revelations...are expressed in an enthusiastic and lyrical rather than a logical form the fundamental outlines of Muhammad’s vision: one single omnipotent God (for whom the name Allah was the natural choice, not a new one to the pagan Arabs but filled with a new content and raised far above any polytheistic conception), author and ruler of creation, lord of the life of man, giver of blessing and chastisement, stern judge of the day of doom...”
Charles J. Adams: “Muhammad’s preaching in Mecca centered upon the one sovereign deity, Allah, who controlled the destiny of mankind. In place of the numerous powers recognized by the pagan Arabs, Muhammad proclaimed a unique God who created the universe, established its order, and encompassed its fate in his hand.”
Even Richard Bell, upon whom Watt depended heavily in his treatment of the Qur’an, did not deny the fact that the strict monotheism and refutation of paganism was the cardinal element of Muhammad’s mission during the Makkan period. He wrote: “Muhammad claimed to be the Messenger of God to his people. He began by advocating monotheism, the worship of one God upon whose power and bounty man was dependent...” going on to state that: “More characteristic of the Qur’an is the reaction from pagan ideas. It was Muhammad’s life-mission to overthrow the polytheism of his people... The fundamental doctrine of the Qur’an is that there is only one God. From that doctrine Muhammad never wavered from start to finish of his mission.... For the most part it is directed against the polytheism of his own Arab people.
Rodwell, Grimme, W. Irving, P. de Lacy Johnstone, E. Gibbon, Hitti, J. J. Saunders, A. Schimmel, Helmer Ringgren and A. V. Storm and K. Cragg, are also among those scholars who fully recognize the fact that Muhammad’s monotheism and understanding of God’s uniqueness and transcendence was never vague and that he never compromised the issue from the very beginning through to the very end of his prophetic mission. For instance H. Ringgern and A. V. Storm maintain: “In a systematic summary of the contents of the Koran, the doctrine of the absolute oneness of God would undoubtedly come out as its principal tenet. ‘There is no God but Allah, and Mohammad is his prophet’... so runs the Islamic creed, and it is, indeed, an apt synopsis of the teaching of the Koran. God is one, and has no one by his side. Polytheism is fiercely attacked....”
It must by now be evident that Watt’s hopeless allegations of Muhammad’s vague monotheism are nothing more than a desperate attempt to portray a progressive element in the Qur’anic concept of the divine unity and uniqueness of God. Equipped and influenced by biblical historical criticism, Watt has no right to draw arbitrary, and one might add audacious, parallels between the biblical and Islamic monotheistic consciousness, attempting to divest Islam of its crowning element, transcendental monotheism, based on nothing more than a single flimsy fairy tale of dubious content and dubious origins.
False gods are not real
Coming back to our original discussion, it must be emphasized that the Qur’an is not satisfied in merely attacking all kinds of polytheism but repeatedly emphasizes the point that false gods have no existence of their own, being nothing more than a product of their worshippers’ imagination: “Behold! verily to Allah belong all creatures, in the heavens and on earth. What do they follow who worship as His “partners” other than Allah? They follow nothing but conjecture, and they do nothing but lie”(10:66). “Say (O Muhammad): “Of your partners’, can any originate creation and repeat it?” Say: “It is Allah who originates creation and repeats it: then how are you deluded away (from the truth)?” Say: “Of your ‘partners’ is there any that can give any guidance towards Truth?” Say: “It is Allah who gives guidance towards Truth. Is then He who gives guidance to Truth more worthy to be followed, or he who finds not guidance (himself) unless he is guided? What then is the matter with you? How judge ye? But most of them follow nothing but conjecture: truly conjecture can be of no avail against Truth. Verily Allah is well aware of all that they do.” (10:34–36)
Henry P. Smith
Contrary to this, Henry P. Smith strangely claims: “The proposition that Allah is the only God does not necessarily mean that the other so-called gods have absolutely no existence. “This was too radical a step to take all at once. Mohammad conceded the existence of spirits or demons who had seduced men to their worship. The Arabic word for these beings is Jinn (collective)...”
Claims such as these, especially in the face of crystal-clear Qur’anic passages such as those above, are not only unjustified but misleading.
Is there willful ignorance here? One wonders. It must be said at the outset that the Qur’an has never denied the existence of those who are worshipped by pagans, either human beings or the jinn, as realities that exist or have existed in the past, a good example being the person of Jesus, the son of Mary, worshiped as a triune God. So, the existence of God’s creation being worshipped by certain people is not in question. What the Qur’an categorically denies is the fact of their existence as divinities capable of benefit or harm independently of God. When the Qur’an confirms the existence of spirit beings such as the jinn, devils, and angels it makes it categorically clear, leaving no stone unturned, that they are powerless creatures of God, under the supreme authority of God, owing all that they have to the power of God, without any power of their own, exercising only whatever is permitted to them by God and hence having no share in the divinity at all. For instance, concerning the jinn the Qur’an states: “And the Jinn race, We had created before, from the fire of a scorching wind” (15:27). “And He created Jinns from fire free of smoke” (55:15). The jinn have been granted astonishing physical capabilities (27:39; 34:12–13; 21:82; 38:37) that differentiate them from ordinary human beings. On the other hand, just like human beings, they are created for the purpose of worshipping God. “I have only created the jinns and men, that they may serve Me” (51:56). There are among them who believe (46:29– 32), and others who reject the truth (6:112; 7:38; 7:179; 41:29).303 Likewise, the jinn will be held answerable (for their deeds) on the Day of Judgement (6:128; 11:119; 72:15).
Angels
The angels are also God’s creation and His servants: “And they make into females angels who themselves are servants of the Most Gracious...” (43:19). In contrast to jinn and mankind, angels are obedient to God’s commands, programmed to be so by their very nature: “They are (but) servants raised to honor. They speak not before He speaks, and they act (in all things) by His command. He knows what is before them, and what is behind them, and they offer no intercession except for those with whom He is well-pleased and they stand in awe and reverence of His (glory)” (21:26–28). The difference between the jinn and the angels is the same as that between mankind and the angels, the jinn like man, are created with free will while the angels are otherwise. The Devil (Iblis) was “one of the Jinns, and he broke the Command of his Lord...” (18:50). Like the jinn, Satan was created out of fire (7:12). Due to acts of submission he was allowed to worship God in the company of the angels. Satan never possessed, neither before his rejection nor after his expulsion, any divine powers or abilities. The only power Iblis is allowed to exercise and that for a specified time only is the power of persuasion. “(Iblis) said: “O my Lord! give me then respite till the Day the (dead) are raised.” (Allah) said: “Respite is granted thee till the day of the Time Appointed.” (Iblis) said: “O my Lord! because Thou hast thrown me out of the way, I will make (wrong) fair- seeming to them on the earth, and I will put them all in the wrong, except Thy chosen servants among them...” (15:36–40; also see 7:14–17)
Iblis has no authority
God made it clear to Iblis that, “For over My servants no authority shalt thou have, except such as put themselves in the wrong and follow thee” (15:42). “No authority has he over those who believe and put their trust in their Lord. His authority is over those only, who take him as patron and who join partners with Allah” (16:99–100). In Surah Ibrahim, the Qur’an depicts a dialogue that will take place on the Day of Judgment between Satan and his followers: “Satan will say, once the matter has been settled: “God has given you a true promise, while I have both promised you and then broken my word with you. I had no authority over you except that I appealed to you, and you responded to me. Do not blame me but blame yourself! I have no claim on you nor have you any claim on It is evident that although the Qur’an does not deny the existence of angels and jinn, as creatures of God, subject to His power, discipline, and justice, it categorically rejects their claim to any power or ability as divine beings. Nothing is divine except the One Almighty God, Transcendent and Majestic (6:100–102). On the other hand, for those who worship these beings in the false belief that they possess divine powers and abilities, or have the least share in them, we are informed by the Qur’an that this act of worship is mere conjecture on the part of the worshippers. So Smith’s other statement that, “Mohammad admitted that the false gods have a real existence. What he denied was not their reality but their divinity – their power to help or harm”, although is closer to the reality, is nevertheless still misleading. The statement must be qualified by the proper qualifier that the existence of such beings as gods is rejected, while their existence as God’s creatures, worshipped wittingly or unwittingly by others, is affirmed. (See 5:116–118; 6:22; 10:28; 25:17; 34:40; 46:6).
Jinn and Angels
The Qur’an modified the Arab conception of angels as superior jinn worthy of worship and veneration, allotting to angels a specific place in the hierarchy of supernatural beings. In the new Islamic theocentric system of reality the angels played a vital role but as created agents of God. The Qur’an classifies angels into several categories in accordance with their assigned duties and functions. Therefore within the universal hierarchy of created beings a specific angelic hierarchy was formed. The angels were still accepted as invisible, celestial beings belonging to a higher ontological order than man and jinn, but without any shade of divinity or adoration ascribed to them. They were the humble obedient servants of God. The source of their respect and veneration lay in their absolute servitude and obedience to God and not in their being divine in any way, shape or form.
No god but God
It is evident by now that the Qur’an neither affirms nor allows any room to proclaim the existence of any god or divinity besides God. All that is other than God is His creation. No one possesses any iota of power or ability to benefit or harm human beings except by the permission of God. Those worshiped by humans other than God are mere creations of their followers’ imagination. We conclude this part of the discussion with Izutsu who puts the matter succinctly: “In the Koranic system, too, there is the concept of aliha. We must not confuse the ontological order of things with the semantic one. In other words, the fact that the Koranic world is essentially monotheistic should not lead us into thinking erroneously that semantically as well as ontologically, Allah stands alone without any peers. On the contrary, there are concepts of “gods” and “idols” in the Koranic system. Only, all these stand in negative relation to Allah; they are there simply as something the existence of which must be denied most emphatically. Speaking in more semantical terms, they are there in the Koran to be connected with the concept of “falsehood” batil, while the concept of Allah is to be connected with that of “truth” haqq.” In the realm of supernatural beings Allah stands alone as the “Real” depriving all other so-called gods of all possible reality. These were now “mere names”, not corresponding to any real entities existing outside of language. “In the terminology of modern semantics, we should say that in this conception the term ilah (pl. alihah), when applied to anything other than Allah Himself is nothing but a word having connotation but no denotation.”
God: The Creator
Furthermore, the Qur’an brings the point home using various arguments from creation to establish the fact. Almighty God is the Creator. He has created the heavens and the earth and all that is in the universe. He is the sole Sustainer: “ He it is who has created for you all that is on earth, and has applied His design to the heavens and fashioned them into seven heavens; and He alone has full knowledge of everything (2:29). “Praise be to Allah, Who created the heavens and the earth, and made the Darkness and the Light. Yet those who reject Faith hold (others) as equal with their Guardian Lord. He it is Who created you from clay, and then decreed a stated term (for you). And there is with Him another determined term; yet ye doubt within yourself! And He is Allah in the heavens and in earth, He knoweth what you hide, and what ye reveal, and He knoweth the (recompense) which ye earn (by your deeds). (6:1–3) “It is Allah Who hath created the heavens and the earth and sendeth down rain from the skies, and with it bringeth our fruits wherewith to feed you; it He Who hath made the ships subject to you, that you may sail through the sea by His Command; and the rivers (also) hath He made subject to you. And He hath made subject to you the sun and the moon, both diligently pursuing their courses; and the Night and the Day hath He (also) made subject to you. And He giveth you of all that ye ask for. But if ye count the favors of Allah, never will ye be able to number them. Verily, man is given up to injustice and ingratitude.” (14:32–34) “He has created the heavens and the earth with truth; far is He above having the partners they ascribe to Him” (16:3; also see 7:54; 7:185; 9:36; 10:3, 10:5; 10:6; 14:19; 25:2, 25:59; 30:8; 31:10). The Qur’an then inquires “...Such is the Creation of Allah: now show Me what is there that others besides Him have created: nay, but the transgressors are in manifest error” (31:11). Say: “Have ye seen (these) ‘partners’ of yours whom ye call upon besides Allah? Show me what it is thay have created in the (wide) earth. Or have they a share in the heavens? Or have We given them a Book from which they (can derive) clear (evidence)?- Nay, the wrong-doers promise each other nothing but delusions.” (35:40) Say: “Do ye see what it is ye invoke besides Allah? Show me what it is they have created on earth, or have they a share in the heavens? Bring me a Book (revealed) before this, or any remnant of knowledge (ye may have), if ye are telling the truth! And who is more astray than one who invokes, besides Allah, such as will not answer him to the Day of Judgment, and who (in fact) are unconscious of their call (to them)? And when mankind are gathered together (at the Resurrection), they will be hostile to them and deny that (men) had worshipped them.” (46:4–6) “Those whom they invoke besides Allah create nothing and are themselves created. (They are things) dead, lifeless: nor do they know when they will be raised up” (16:20–21). This verse undoubtedly refers to human beings such as saints, prophets, emperors, and kings who having enjoyed political or spiritual powers in the past are ultimately consigned to the earth, to graves, after their death. This excludes Satan and the angels who are thought to be alive.
A Parable
In Surah al-Hajj, the Qur’an makes the point succinctly: “O Men! A parable is set forth [herewith]; hearken, then, to it! Behold, those beings whom you invoke instead of God cannot create [as much as] a fly, even were they to join all their forces to that end! And if a fly robs them of anything, they cannot [even] rescue it from him! Weak indeed is the seeker, and [weak] the sought! No true understanding of God have they [who err in this way]: for, verily, God is most Powerful, Almighty! (22:73–74) The conclusion the Qur’an wants people to derive from this is simple and straightforward: “Is then He Who creates like one that creates not? Will ye not receive admonition?” (16:17).
Dua's
Another contrast is that of response to prayers. The true and only God guides, listens and responds to prayers. He is the only one who helps those in need: “Our Lord is the One Who has given everything its own constitution; then guided it” (20:50; also see 2:143; 2:213; 6:90; 6:149; 7:43; 7:178; 16:9; 63:11; 35:8 etc.).307 “When My servants ask thee concerning Me, I am indeed close (to them): I respond to the prayer of every suppliant when he calleth on Me: Let them also, with a will, listen to My call, and believe in Me: That they may walk in the right way” (2:186). Al-Tabari relates on the authority of Hasan al-Basari, that a man asked the Prophet, “Is our Lord near that we can pray to Him in private or is He far that we cannot cry out to Him?” The verse was therefore revealed.308 Ibn Kathir relates, that some of the Prophet’s Companions asked him, “Where is our Lord?” This verse was revealed in response to that question. Al-Bukhari relates from Abu Mas’ud: “We were in the company of the Prophet (peace be upon him) on a journey, and whenever we ascended a high place, we used to say Takbir (Allahu Akbar meaning God is the Most Great) (in a loud voice). The Prophet (peace be upon him) said, “O people! Be kind to yourself, for you are not calling upon a deaf or an absent one, but you are calling an All-Hearer, and an All-Seer....”
Ibn Arabi gives this verse a great mystical significance vis-à-vis the man-God relationship and man’s quest for Him: “If my servants who are journeying toward me ‘ask you concerning’ knowledge of ‘me,’ ‘certainly I am near’ and manifest. ‘I answer the prayers of the suppliant when he calls upon me’ with the tongue of his state and potential by granting him what his state and potential require. ‘Let them therefore answer my call’ by purifying their potential with asceticism and acts of worship. For to myself do I call them in order that I may teach them how to journey to me. Let them behold me when they are in the state of purity so that I may manifest myself in the mirrors of their hearts. This, in order that they may be well guided in rectitude and achieve goodness in themselves.”
In Surah Ghafir, it is written: “And your Lord says: ‘Call on Me; I will answer your prayer...’” (40:60). Abu Hurayrah narrates a hadith qudsi (the sayings of the Prophet Muhammad as revealed to him by the Almighty) from the Prophet, that Almighty Allah says: “I am as My servant thinks I am (another possible rendering of the Arabic is: “I am as My servant expects Me to be”). I am with him when he makes mention of Me. If he makes mention of Me to himself, I make mention of him to Myself: and if he makes mention of Me in an assembly, I make mention of him in an assembly better than it. And if he draws near to Me a hand’s span, I draw near to him an arm’s length, and if he draws near to Me an arm’s length, I draw near to him a fathom’s length. And if he comes to Me walking, I go to him at speed.”
Therefore, narrates Anas ibn Malik, “To call upon God is the essence of worship.” “To Him alone should all prayer be addressed, for those to whom they do address their prayers besides Him are altogether powerless to respond to them. The example of praying to any other than Allah is that of a man who stretches out his hands to water, asking it to reach his mouth, although water has no power to reach his mouth. The prayers of the unbelievers are a sheer waste.” (13:14) “And those whom you invoke besides Him own not a straw. If you invoke them they will not listen to your call, and if they were to listen, they cannot answer your (prayer). On the Day of Judgment they will reject your “Partnership”. And none, (O Man!) can inform you like Him who is All-Aware. (35:14)
The Divine response to the human du'a is signified in the Koran by the word istijabah meaning literally “answering” being ready in response. Semantically we may describe this by saying that the concept of du¢a stands in correlation with that of istijabah. Unlike du¢a, which is essentially verbal, istijabah is non-verbal. In the Koran, God Himself declares positively that He is always ready to “answer” if only men call upon Him sincerely....” Moreover, the Koran attaches the highest importance to the concept of istijabah, as is evident from the fact that it makes the incapacity for istijabah one of the most salient marks of a false god. The gods whom the Kafirs worship apart from Allah cannot respond to their du¢a, however much the worshippers call upon them. They do not hear the Kafirs prayer, and even if they did, they would not able to answer anything.
The Sovereign
The true God is the true sovereign. He helps whomsoever He pleases, benefits whomsoever He wants, and causes harm to whosoever deserves so. “There is no victory except from Allah, the Exalted, the Wise” (3:126). “If Allah helps you, none can overcome you: if He forsakes you, who is there, after that, that can help you? In Allah, then, let Believers put their trust” (3:160). “If Allah touch thee with affliction, none can remove it but He; if He touch thee with happiness, He hath power over all things. He is Irresistibly Supreme over His servants. And He is the Wise, Acquainted with all things” (6:17–18). “If Allah afflicts you with any hardship, none other than He can remove it; and if He will any good for you, none can avert His bounty. He bestows good upon whomsoever of His servants He will. He is All-Forgiving, All- Merciful” (10:107). “What Allah out of His Mercy doth bestow on mankind none can withhold: what He doth withhold, none can grant apart from Him: And He is Exalted in Power, Full of Wisdom” (35:2). The Prophet said: “Be mindful of Allah, and you will find Him in front of you. If you ask, ask of Allah; if you seek help, seek help of Allah. Know that if the Nations were to gather together to benefit you with anything, it would benefit you only with something that Allah had already prescribed for you, and that if they gather together to harm you with anything, they would harm you only with something Allah had already prescribed for you. The pens have been lifted and the pages have dried.”
In contrast, false gods can neither benefit nor cause harm: “They call upon such deities, besides Allah, as can neither hurt nor profit them: that is straying far indeed (from the Way)! They call on one whose hurt is nearer than his profit: evil, indeed, is the patron, and evil the companion (for help)!” (22:12–13). “Say: ‘Call on those – besides Him – whom ye fancy: they have neither the power to remove your troubles from you nor to change them’” (17:56) “Say: ‘Call upon other (gods) whom you fancy, besides Allah: they have no power, – not the weight of an atom, – in the heavens or on earth: no (sort of) share have they therein, nor is any of them a helper to Allah.’” (34:22) “They serve, besides Allah, what can hurt them not nor profit them, and they say: ‘These are our intercessors with Allah.’ Say: ‘Do ye indeed inform Allah of something He knows not, in the heavens or on earth? – Glory to Him! and far is He above the partners they ascribe (to Him!)’” (10:18). “And those whom they invoke besides Allah have no power of intercession; – only he who bears witness to the Truth, and with full knowledge” (43:86; also see 10:106; 25:55; 21:66; 6:71; 5:76). Actually false gods do not possess the power to benefit or harm themselves: “Say: “Do ye then take (for worship) protectors other than Him, such as have no power either for good or for harm to themselves?” Say: “Are the blind equal with those who see? Or the depths of darkness equal with Light?” Or do they assign to Allah partners who have created (anything) as He has created, so that the creation seemed to them similar? Say: “Allah is the Creator of all things: He is the One, the Supreme and Irresistible.” (13:16) “Yet have they taken, besides Him, gods that can create nothing but are themselves created: that have no control of hurt or good to themselves; nor can they control Death nor Life nor Resurrection” (25:3). If they are unable to help themselves, how could they help anybody else? “Do they indeed ascribe to Him as partners things that can create nothing, but are themselves created? No aid can they give them, nor can they aid themselves....Verily those whom ye call upon besides Allah are servants like unto you: call upon them, and let them listen to your prayer, if you are (indeed) truthful!... But those ye call upon besides Him, are unable to help you, and indeed to help themselves. (7:191–197; also see 21:42; 36:75)
Conclusion
From the above discussion it becomes evident that the Qur’an has categorically refuted all kinds of polytheism, henotheism and associationism, in addition to vigorously affirming the transcendental otherness and Godhead of the One God. In the Qur’an just as the concept of tawhid is presented with strong and convincing arguments, likewise that of polytheism, henotheism and associationism is rejected with strong and irrefutable evidence. The Qur’an does not confine itself to mere assertions of God’s Oneness, Unity, and absolute Sovereignty. It uses various arguments both logical and cosmological to substantiate such claims. The Qur’an implies a variety of methods, processes, techniques, thought processes and cognitive categories to drive home the point of the transcendental uniqueness of God Almighty. It safeguards an already self-explaining and convincing concept with additional measures and parameters so as to allow no doubt or confusion to enter concerning it. As belief in a strict monotheism is the primordial act needed for the salvation of humanity in its entirety, the Qur’an presents this belief in a very simple, straightforward and logical way. The countless Qur’anic passages which delineate this belief are so simple and clear that no external help is needed to elaborate the point of their emphasis. They are self-explanatory and self-sufficient in this regard. They are also coherent, systematic and methodical. Unlike the Old Testament, there exist no layers of progressive or evolutionary revelation or conflicting tendencies in the Qur’an. Qur’anic monotheism is thorough, transcendental, unique and systematic to the core.
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