Some French Philosophes’ Use of Islam

During the Enlightenment era, certain French thinkers, known as the Philosophes, turned their gaze to Islam, a faith geographically and ideologically distant from their Christian milieu. They were driven by both an admiration for Islamic monotheism and a critical stance towards Christian doctrines. This period marked a significant intellectual movement wherein Islam was utilized as a tool for critique, exploration, and inspiration.

Enlightenment Views on Islam:

Leading French thinkers, such as Henri de Boulainvilliers and Voltaire, regarded Islam as more rational and superior to Christianity. This was primarily due to its emphasis on monotheism, stripped of the complexities and mysteries associated with Christian dogma. These thinkers championed religious reformation grounded in Unitarian, Islamic, Deistic, rational, natural, and republican ideals.

Research suggests that radical thinkers, spanning from Bayle to Boulainvilliers, leveraged Islam to criticize the irrational facets of revealed religion, steering the discourse towards Spinozist deism.

Judaism and the Enlightenment Critique:

Even though Judaism, like Islam, is monotheistic, it did not escape the critical lens of these thinkers. The Enlightenment critique of Judaism was rooted in its depiction of God – which they perceived as anthropomorphic, tribal, and parochial. Furthermore, they took issue with certain aspects of Jewish theology, ethics, and rituals. But perhaps the most significant point of contention was how Judaism was co-opted by Christianity, the primary target of their ridicule, criticism, and refutation.

The Radical Enlighteners and Their Role:

Prominent figures like Henri Boulainvilliers, Pierre Cupe, Jean Meslier, Nicolas Freret, Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, and Count of Mirabeau played pivotal roles during this period. These radicals formed a bridge between the clandestine anti-Christian, anti-monarchy, and anti-intolerance works of early 18th-century rebels and the later works of the mainstay Philosophes and Enlighteners.

Boulainvilliers and the Islamic Model:

A central figure in this movement was Boulainvilliers, who utilized Islam as a lens to challenge Christian dogmas, such as the Trinity and the concept of original sin. He highlighted the corruption within the Christian clergy, particularly emphasizing the perceived idleness of monks.

Boulainvilliers was especially critical of the foundational beliefs of Christianity. By analyzing biblical miracles and prophecies, he aimed to foster skepticism regarding their divine origins. His vision gravitated towards a Unitarian, Deistic, and natural religious system, with Islam epitomizing such a rational tradition.

Drawing parallels with English Deist and Islamophile John Toland, Boulainvilliers saw Muhammad as a figurehead for a religion free from “priestcraft,” especially the overbearing influence of the French Catholic Church. He used the image of Muhammad to articulate his anti-Catholic and anticlerical sentiments. Boulainvilliers depicted Muhammad as an adversary of the clergy, who, in his view, used religion to serve their personal desires and promote discord among Christians. Muhammad, in Boulainvilliers’ interpretation, viewed the Christian clergy as the perpetrators of superstitions and the root of erroneous teachings that misguided the masses.

The Dichotomous Perception of Islam:

The French Radical Enlightenment’s perspective on Islam and Muhammad was marked by duality. On one side, there was an appreciation of Islam as a refined form of monotheism, void of the shortcomings associated with Judaism and Christianity, resonating closely with deism. A manifestation of this positive view was Boulainvilliers’ Vie de Mahomed, which presented Islam in an enthusiastic light and was influential across Europe.

The French Enlightenment, especially its radical arm, represented a significant shift in the intellectual climate of Europe. Turning to Islam, these thinkers found a faith that, in their view, embodied rationality and purity, ideals they felt were absent in Christianity. By leveraging Islamic principles, figures, and narratives, they constructed a potent critique against Christian doctrines and practices. This period underscores the profound interconnectedness of different cultures and religions and their role in shaping the contours of intellectual thought across eras.

Islam Through the Eyes of the French Enlightenment

The French Enlightenment, a period of intense intellectual and cultural revolution, witnessed a reimagining of religious thought. Central to this discourse was Islam, which emerged as an intriguing subject for some of Europe’s most influential thinkers. While Christianity came under severe criticism for its perceived complexities and contradictions, Islam was viewed, especially by radicals, as a bastion of monotheistic purity, simplicity and rationality.

Voltaire’s Perspective on Islam and Christianity:

Renowned as one of the leading figures of the Enlightenment, Voltaire’s critique of Christianity was unsparing. He deemed Christianity as a faith that intelligent and honest men should dread. Conversely, his views on Islam were largely positive. Voltaire appreciated the faith for its straightforward monotheistic beliefs, free from the intricate dogmas of Christianity. He remarked on the logic of Islam, which did not engage in the seeming contradictions inherent in Christian teachings, such as the Trinitarian concept. Voltaire lauded Islam for its sole emphasis on the belief in an all-powerful God. However, he felt that the addition of Muhammad as its prophet slightly marred the purity of its teachings, which otherwise would’ve paralleled the simplicity of Chinese philosophy.

The Appeal of Islamic Monotheism:

During the Enlightenment, there was a marked shift in the perception of Islam. It was no longer seen as a heretical offshoot of Christianity, but as a distinct and rational religion. The “radical Enlightenment” sculpted a fresh vision of Islam as a pure monotheistic faith with a strong moral fiber. This vision of Islam was seen as more grounded in reason, and less reliant on miracles than its counterparts, Christianity and Judaism.

Later Thinkers and Their Divergent Views:

Subsequent luminaries, such as Rousseau, Condorcet, and Samson, continued the discourse on Islam but with nuanced differences. They conceptualized an idealized Islam as being progressive, republican, and tolerant. However, they often drew a distinction between the religion and its adherents. While they praised Islamic principles, they sometimes perceived Muslims as superstitious and fatalistic.

• Rousseau lauded Islam as the most logical of the major religions in Europe.
• Condorcet echoed this sentiment, praising the simplicity and tolerance inherent in Islam’s teachings. However, he paradoxically viewed Muslims as being mired in “eternal slavery” and “incurable stupidity.”
• Samson expressed regret that Muhammad, given his influence, didn’t lead his followers to the simple morals of the children of Ismael.

In writings like the Mercure de France, authors elaborated on the monotheistic core of Islam, asserting that Muslims viewed themselves as exclusive monotheists, considering others, particularly the French, as polytheists due to their belief in the Trinity and their veneration of images.

Islam: A Reflection of Original Christianity?:

A recurring theme among the thinkers of the Enlightenment was the idea that Islam represented the true essence of Jesus’ teachings, which had been obscured by the post-Constantine Roman Church. They saw in Islam the simplicity, rationality, tolerance, and Unitarianism that were once inherent in early Christian teachings. To them, Muhammad did not introduce a new faith but rather restored Christianity to its original form, which had been corrupted over the centuries.

The French Enlightenment, with its revolutionary spirit and thirst for knowledge, offered a novel perspective on religions. While Christianity often found itself under scrutiny and criticism, Islam emerged as a beacon of rationality and monotheistic clarity. Thinkers like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Condorcet, while differing in their nuances, largely recognized the rational and egalitarian foundations of Islam. This period underscores the interconnectedness of global religious thought and the continuous evolution of religious interpretations through the lens of cultural and intellectual movements.

Islam in the French Enlightenment: From Imposter to Reformer

The French Enlightenment witnessed a profound shift in perceptions regarding Muhammad and, by extension, Islam. Once reviled as a deceptive anti-Christ figure, Muhammad’s image transformed into that of a reformer, a prophet embodying the principles of Enlightenment and Deism. This transformation wasn’t sudden, but rather a result of consistent and multi-faceted interactions between the French and Muslim worlds from the 16th to the 18th centuries.

These interactions weren’t just limited to academic or theoretical exchanges; they manifested through varied ventures, including commercial pursuits, diplomatic endeavors, scientific curiosity, military collaborations, leisure travels, and religious missions. Engaging with different facets of Muslim culture and thought, the French travelers and thinkers were deeply influenced, challenging their perspectives and altering their perceptions. These engagements catalyzed changes in the European intellectual realm, underscoring the importance of interconnectedness in global history.

Historically, the French Ancient Regime’s absolutist stance was deeply rooted in Christian ideology, supported by a robust foundation of Church teachings, institutions, rituals, and values. However, by the 18th century, there was a pressing need to challenge and reform this rigid system. As societal conditions evolved, there arose an urgent demand for revolutionary changes in socio-economic and religio-political arenas. Islam’s core principles, embodying Unitarianism, rationalism, and a degree of republicanism, offered an alternate framework that could catalyze this much-needed transformation.

This revolutionary shift was evident in policy changes as well. On 24th December 1789, the French National Assembly took a landmark decision to grant full civil rights to Muslims. This step was groundbreaking, especially in a nation where historically, only Catholics, excluding even the Protestants, were privileged with citizenship and the right to serve in civil and military roles. Naturally, such rapid transformations triggered a backlash. Traditionalists and royalists were alarmed, drawing parallels between revolutionary fervor and what they deemed ‘Islamic anarchy.’

It’s crucial to understand that Islam and its symbols were evoked by both revolutionary and anti-revolutionary factions during this period, albeit for different objectives. The discourse was filled with references to mosques, muftis, the Quran, and the Prophet, either in support of or opposition to the new socio-political order. A case in point is Jean-Baptiste du Val-de-Grâce, baron de Cloots (1755–1794), an influential revolutionary figure. Known for his radical views against Christianity, he expressed a notable preference for Islam. In his work, “La certitude des preuves du Mahométisme;ou, Réfutation de l’examen critique des apologistes de la religion mahométane,” Cloots essentially recast Christian references with Islamic ones, portraying Islam as a progressive force. Such was his admiration for Islam that he proclaimed, “better a Muslim than a Christian,” viewing Islam as a potential replacement for Christianity and envisioning its scriptures as the revolutionary bible.

The French Enlightenment era was a time of profound transformation in the intellectual and political landscape of France. This period saw Islam evolve from being viewed as a heretical imposter faith to a religion embodying rationalism, reform, and revolutionary ideals. Interactions between the French and Muslim worlds facilitated this change, underscoring the power of intercultural exchange in shaping global history and perspectives.