The Global Influence of the French Revolution

Historians often draw parallels between the origins of the Declaration and the Bill of Rights in the American colonies. However, as noted by Comte de Montmorency, the ambitions of the French Revolution were far more expansive. Whereas the American Revolution sought to set a precedent for the New World, the French aspired to inspire the entire globe. Their intent was not mere imitation but the establishment of a more universal model.

The ideological frameworks of de-Christianization and republicanism fundamentally shaped the French Revolution. While the European Enlightenment was a challenge to religious and monarchic institutions, its manifestations varied across nations. The English approach was marked by reservation and continuity, the Americans extended this to seek separation of powers, and the French, in their quest for a profound societal transformation, took the revolutionary ethos to its most radical conclusion. By challenging established doctrines and pushing for more inclusive political structures, the French Revolution not only redefined its national fabric but also set a precedent for global socio-political reformation.

French Enlightenment and the Underpinnings of the French Revolution

The Enlightenment period, which emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional institutions, served as the intellectual springboard for the French Revolution. While there were distinctions between the American and French versions of Enlightenment, both shared core values that espoused change. However, it was the Radical Enlightenment in France, with its universalist and secular ideals, that held the philosophical keys to the revolution.

Moderate vs Radical Enlightenment in France

Voltaire epitomized the moderate enlighteners in France. Unlike American radicals like Jefferson, who were relatively discreet in their critiques, figures like Voltaire publicly avowed their Deistic Unitarianism and the need to overhaul Christianity. Importantly, while they sought to dismantle the religious dogma, they weren’t in favor of completely upending socio-political institutions, preferring peace, stability, and continuity. Voltaire, for instance, supported the idea of a constitutional monarchy, and he often praised enlightened monarchs such as Frederick II of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia.

Contrasting this moderate view was the Radical Enlightenment, championed by thinkers like Diderot, d’Holbach, Rousseau, and Paine. This school of thought pushed against not just the established religious orthodoxy but also opposed the existing hierarchical socio-political orders, including monarchies. Central to their philosophy was the emphasis on universal human equality, reciprocity, and rights. These ideas were so revolutionary at the time that they earned the direct condemnation of Pope Pious VI, who, through the briefs Quod aliquantum (1791) and Caritas (1791), denounced both the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and the Civil Constitution of the Clergy.

Universalism and Modern Democratic Ideals

The Radical Enlightenment’s emphasis on universalism laid the foundational principles we now associate with modern democracy and human rights. This revolutionary shift proposed an entirely new moral framework, one that was distinct from both the theological doctrine and the more moderate deism of Voltaire and Rousseau. By advocating for the equality of races, religions, genders, and individuals, and by championing universal education, freedom of expression, and individual freedom, the Radical Enlightenment solidified the philosophical underpinnings of democratic republicanism. As described by d’Holbach, it was the “true système social.”

Jonathan Israel, a prominent historian, underscores the paramount importance of the Radical Enlightenment to the French Revolution. In his analysis, it was the only fundamental cause, being the singular influence that equipped and inspired the revolution’s authentic leadership. The strength of the Radical Enlightenment lay in its ability to proffer a package of values that was universal, secular, and egalitarian enough to mobilize a general emancipation movement anchored in reason, freedom of thought, and democracy.

Diverse Religious Critiques within the Radical Enlightenment

An important distinction to note is that not all radical enlighteners were atheists, pantheists, or materialists. However, they were united in their opposition to Roman Christianity. For instance, Thomas Paine and Joseph Priestley, both critical figures in the Radical Enlightenment, were Unitarian theists, often labeled “half Muslims” due to their beliefs that paralleled certain Islamic tenets.

Other revolutionary figures like Cloots, Condorcet, and Robespierre were Deists. Their understanding and appreciation of Deism had pronounced Islamic affinities, hinting at the complex interplay of religious critique and reinterpretation during this period.

The Enlightenment in France, bifurcated between its moderate and radical strains, provided the intellectual momentum for the seismic shifts of the French Revolution. While moderate thinkers like Voltaire sought reforms within the existing framework, the radical enlighteners pushed for a more profound transformation, emphasizing universal rights, equality, and secular governance. Their universalist doctrine became the cornerstone of modern democratic ideals, underscoring the enduring impact of the Enlightenment’s philosophical explorations on the trajectory of global history.