The Indelible Mark of Islamic Influence on Western European Thought

The intellectual evolution of Western Europe owes a significant debt to the Islamic world, which served as a conduit for the flow of Greco-Roman knowledge. The sudden emergence of advanced philosophical and scientific concepts in Europe, after a prolonged period of disconnect from these traditions, demands an exploration of the sources that bridged this knowledge gap.

The Islamic Preservation and Synthesis of Greco-Roman Knowledge: It’s implausible to believe that Europe, isolated from Greco-Roman sciences and philosophy for centuries, could suddenly grasp and expand upon such complex concepts without any intermediaries. The Muslim civilization played this crucial intermediary role. They meticulously preserved, contextualized, and synthesized Greco-Roman knowledge. Columbia University Professor George Saliba aptly highlighted how the Muslim culture and tradition breathed new life into this ancient legacy, enabling Europe to access a ‘ready-to-consume’ form of scientific tradition.

Vocabulary as Evidence of Cultural Exchange: Huskins sheds light on the linguistic legacy of this intellectual exchange. Western languages, over time, incorporated many untranslated Arabic terms, particularly in scientific, commercial, and academic realms. Words such as ‘algebra,’ ‘zero,’ ‘cipher,’ and ‘algorism’ highlight mathematical contributions. Terms like ‘almanac,’ ‘zenith,’ ‘nadir,’ and ‘azimuth’ point to advancements in astronomy. Additionally, in chemistry and pharmacology, words like ‘alchemy,’ ‘alcohol,’ ‘alkali,’ ‘elixir,’ ‘alembic,’ ‘syrup,’ and ‘gum arabic’ found their way into Western lexicons. Trade-related terms like ‘hazar,’ ‘tariff,’ ‘admiral,’ ‘arsenal,’ and even names of goods such as ‘sugar,’ ‘cotton,’ ‘muslin,’ ‘damask,’ ‘cordovan leather,’ and ‘Moroccan leather’ underscore commercial interactions. These linguistic relics attest to the profound interactions in the Mediterranean and the consequent knowledge transfer.

Direct Translations and Norman Sicily: While the Islamic world served as an essential bridge for knowledge transfer, direct translations from Greek during the twelfth century were mostly confined to Italy. In particular, the Norman kingdom in Southern Italy and Sicily emerged as significant nexuses of Greek and Latin cultural convergence.

Islam’s Role in European Intellectual Movements: Islamic influence was not just confined to the preservation and transmission of ancient knowledge but was deeply embedded in key European intellectual movements.

Latin Scholasticism: The scholastics, often recognized as the original schoolmen, utilized dialectics to merge Christian theology with philosophical principles. Their training in logic, grammar, and rhetoric provided them with essential tools for theological discussions, making them prominent figures in universities. Jill Kraye, the Professor of Renaissance Philosophy, pointed out that these centers of scholastic thought were rooted in the teachings of Aristotle, especially his works on logic and natural philosophy. Professor George Makdisi emphasized that this scholastic methodology wasn’t new; it had been a cornerstone of Islamic orthodoxy a century or so prior. Through this approach, Muslim scholars validated their religious beliefs, emphasizing their authenticity, dynamism, and contemporary relevance.

Italian Humanism and Renaissance: These movements also carry the unmistakable imprints of Islamic influence. While scholasticism was the mainstay at universities, humanism burgeoned outside of them.

Sixteenth Century Reformation: As a watershed event in European history, the Reformation also had undercurrents of ideas that flowed from Islamic scholarship. All three movements—Scholasticism, Humanism, and the Renaissance—served as tributaries to the Reformation, each bearing traces of Islamic intellectual contributions.

It’s evident that the resurgence of Greco-Roman knowledge in Western Europe wasn’t a spontaneous event. Instead, it was facilitated by the meticulous preservation, translation, and synthesis carried out by the Islamic world. From vocabulary to core intellectual ideas and movements, the indelible mark of Islamic influence on Western thought cannot be overlooked. This intricate tapestry of cultural exchange underscores the interconnectedness of human civilizations and the shared journey of intellectual evolution.

St. Thomas Aquinas and the Influence of Muslim Philosophers

St. Thomas Aquinas, a luminary of medieval scholasticism, drew significantly from Islamic philosophy. His profound integration of Muslim philosophical insights reflects the interconnected tapestry of intellectual traditions across Christianity and Islam during the medieval period.

1. Aquinas’s Intellectual Debt to Islamic Scholars: Aquinas’s writings resonate with the insights of Muslim philosophers such as Ibn Rushd (Averroes), Ibn Sina (Avicenna), al-Farabi, al-Ghazali, and many more. Several scholars, including E. Renan, E. Gilson, Majid Fakhry, and Edward Booth, opine that Aquinas’s philosophical foundation is deeply rooted in Averroes’s thought. Renan goes so far as to suggest that Aquinas owes almost his entire philosophical framework to Averroes.

Furthermore, scholars like A. M. Giochon, David Burrell, John Wippel, and Jon McGinnis contend that both Aquinas and his teacher, Albert the Great, owe an immense debt to Ibn Sina. According to Giochon, any deep examination of medieval philosophy reveals not just the influence of Avicennan philosophy but its profound shaping role. Robert Hammond observes that the metaphysical underpinnings of Aquinas’s thought are deeply Farabian. Other scholars, such as Herbert Davidson, Alfred Guillaume, and Frank Griffel, have drawn parallels between Aquinas and Islamic scholars like al-Ghazali, al-Razi, and al-Shahrastani.

2. Aquinas: Bridging Philosophy and Theology: St. Thomas was not just a philosopher but a seasoned theologian who seamlessly intertwined philosophy with theological propositions. In doing so, he mirrored the approach of Muslim philosophers who had embarked on a similar intellectual journey long before him. This makes it evident that Aquinas found a template in these Muslim scholars, drawing inspiration from their methodical reconciliation of faith and reason.

Unlike the Platonic leanings of St. Augustine and other Church Fathers, Aquinas leaned more towards Aristotelianism. His mission was to harmonize Christian theology with Aristotelian thought, and in this pursuit, he drew extensively from Muslim philosophers who had long engaged with Aristotle.

3. Aquinas’s Early Exposure to Aristotelianism: Aquinas’s academic journey began at the University of Naples, a part of Norman Sicily. The historical backdrop of Sicily provides insight into its rich intellectual milieu. Muslims had governed Sicily for almost three centuries. Even after the Norman conquest, many Muslims remained in the region, contributing to its diverse cultural and intellectual landscape.

Under the patronage of Norman rulers, particularly Frederick II, there was a concerted effort to translate scientific works from Arabic to Latin. Of these translations, the works of Aristotle held paramount importance. Notably, Muslim philosophers like al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, and Ibn Rushd had deeply engaged with Aristotle, offering extensive commentaries on his works. By the time of Aquinas, the Muslim-Aristotelian tradition was well-entrenched. The 12th century, in particular, witnessed a fervent translation movement, with Aristotle’s works and their Muslim commentaries being translated from Arabic to Latin.

Given this vibrant intellectual environment, it’s no surprise that Aquinas, situated in Southern Italy and particularly in Naples, imbibed and integrated these Muslim philosophical insights into his works.

The legacy of St. Thomas Aquinas stands as a testament to the intercultural intellectual exchanges of the medieval era. His deep engagement with the works of Muslim philosophers underscores the mutual enrichment of Christian and Islamic thought during this period. In assimilating and adapting these insights, Aquinas not only advanced Christian scholasticism but also paid homage to the rich tapestry of knowledge woven by Muslim scholars. Through Aquinas, one witnesses the harmonious confluence of faith, reason, and the shared pursuit of understanding across civilizations.

Islam’s Rich History of Humanism and Cultural Engagement

Before the West’s embrace of humanism, Islam celebrated human dignity, freedom of choice, and worldly pursuits. Islam’s humanism was deeply rooted in its teachings and history, highlighting values that transcended boundaries and cultures.

1. Human Values in Islamic Tradition: Islamic civilization prioritized human dignity and equality. Unlike some perceptions, Islam recognizes the freedom of will, and choice, and the importance of moral actions for salvation. The religion advocated for:

• Freedom of Expression and Dissent: Islam allowed for discussions, disagreements, and varying interpretations without fearing repercussions.
• Democratic Governance: It upheld governance through selective consent and limited monarchy, ensuring rulers didn’t become despotic.
• Right to Wealth with Social Responsibility: Islam permits material pursuits, acknowledging their significance in worldly life. Public display of prosperity is acceptable as long as the affluent also share their wealth with the needy through obligatory alms-giving, known as Zakat.
• Trade and Business: Business isn’t just acceptable in Islam; it’s celebrated. Prophet Muhammad himself was a businessman, dealing in local and international trade.
• Cultural Expressions: Islamic civilization didn’t suppress expressions of individuality, prosperity, or power, as long as these expressions didn’t infringe on others’ rights or showcased arrogance.

2. Absence of a Centralized Religious Authority: Islam’s foundation doesn’t rely on a centralized religious authority, differentiating it from certain Christian traditions. In Islam:

• There is no centralized ecclesiastical establishment.
• Political ambitions, such as those witnessed in Papal states, were absent.
• Unlike some Christian traditions, there weren’t multiple layers of Church traditions, decrees, or sacraments.
• Islamic discourse remained closely connected to its classical sciences, including the Arabic language, ensuring its teachings weren’t lost or significantly altered over time.
• The concept of caliphate/ limited monarchy didn’t have unrestricted power. Islamic Shari’ah was the guiding law, applicable to everyone, irrespective of their societal status.

3. Emphasis on Knowledge and Wisdom: Islam placed a profound emphasis on acquiring knowledge:

• Knowledge and wisdom were considered invaluable, and everyone was encouraged to seek them out.
• The famous saying goes that Muslims should seek knowledge “even if it means going to China,” underscoring the lengths one should go to for learning.
• This pursuit wasn’t just theoretical; by the mid-9th century, Muslims established trade with distant lands like China and Western Europe, leading to an exchange of knowledge and culture.

4. Assimilation of Diverse Cultural Knowledge: Islam showed an extraordinary ability to assimilate knowledge from various civilizations:

• Muslims actively sought knowledge from India, Persia, China, and Greece.
• The assimilation of “pagan” Greek science and philosophy was particularly noteworthy. Instead of rejecting these ideas, Muslims incorporated them, making modifications wherever necessary to align with their religious narrative.
• Schools of higher education, madrasas, and academies played a significant role in this transmission of knowledge. They served as melting pots for various cultural and scientific ideas.

5. Acknowledgement from Scholars: Western scholars like Jack Goody recognized the humanistic phase in Islamic history. He noted that Islam, at times with hesitation but often with enthusiasm, transmitted both Greek “pagan” and Islamic ideas. This was done through higher education institutions, ensuring a continuous flow and preservation of knowledge.

Islam’s history showcases a rich tapestry of humanistic values, cultural exchanges, and the pursuit of knowledge. These principles, deeply embedded in its teachings, highlight Islam’s role as a bridge between various civilizations and its continuous endeavor to promote human dignity, wisdom, and progress.