Western Approaches to Prophet Muhammad: Challenges and Opportunities

The Western world has held diverse views regarding the person and mission of Rasulullah (SAW), Prophet Muhammad of Islam. His image in the West is characterized by a complex duality – simultaneously the most hated and respected figure. This essay explores the historical context and reasons behind this dichotomy of perceptions, examining the influences of geopolitics, religious dynamics, and intellectual biases on Western perceptions of Prophet Muhammad.

Geopolitical Hostilities and Stereotyping

The most odious criticisms of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and Islam usually emerge during periods of geopolitical hostilities between the Muslim East and the Christian West. When the Christian world feels threatened by Muslim forces or challenged by Islamic revival or resistance movements or by Muslim immigrants, it resorts to negative portrayals of the Prophet, Islam, and Muslims. Cartoons, pamphlets, books, and other materials vilifying Prophet Muhammad are used to galvanize support against Muslims. It is essential to recognize that attacking Muhammad's (PBUH) character is a strategic move aimed at weakening Muslim presence, resolve, power and unity.

Muslim Love and Reverence for the Prophet

Contrastingly, Muslims have expressed profound love, veneration, and admiration for Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), viewing him as the ultimate model of piety, morality, resistance, perseverance, and socio-political reformation. Touching upon the honor, dignity, or sanctity of Prophet Muhammad is considered a religious taboo in the Muslim world. This unwavering devotion extends to all Prophets and Messengers of Allah SWT, aligning with the fundamental tenets of Islamic faith and civilization, as outlined in the Quran.

Interfaith and Intrafaith Polemics

Comparatively, Jewish and Christian traditions have exhibited tendencies toward interfaith and intrafaith polemics, often targeting revered religious figures of other faiths for ridicule. Historical examples include the Jewish community's scorn for Prophet Jesus (PBUH) and derogatory remarks about Mary (PBUH) in the Talmud. Early Christian writings also displayed contempt for Jews. This trend of labeling the "Other" as disingenuous and immoral was not limited to Prophet Muhammad, as even he was depicted negatively by the Christian West during his time.

Western Views of Prophet Muhammad

The Western perception of Prophet Muhammad has been influenced by historical biases that have persisted over centuries. Western thinkers, theologians, and scholars, from Rudolph de Ludheim to the Enlightenment era, propagated negative views of the Prophet. The Crusades intensified the bitterness in their portrayals. Mythological stories such as the "white bull" and "trained dove" were employed to depict Islamic revelations in absurd and derogatory ways.

In the early Enlightenment period, influential figures like Barthelmy d'Herbelot de Molainville and Humphry Prideaux continued to label Prophet Muhammad as an impostor and Islam as heretical. Despite the Enlightenment's emphasis on rationality, these authors perpetuated irrational and biased perspectives.

The 18th century saw figures like Simon Ockley, George Sale, and Voltaire ( mostly to avoid censorship) maintaining accusations of insincerity, ambition, and lust against Prophet Muhammad. Ockley, for example, described him as a crafty man who concealed his true nature behind a facade of virtue.

• Favorable Views of Prophet Muhammad

Paradoxically, amidst Western hostility, some European circles held favorable views of Prophet Muhammad. Throughout Christendom's history, internal struggles led some to seek guidance from sources outside their own tradition. In the 15th and 16th centuries, groups like the Polish Socinians, Continental Unitarians, and 17th-century Deists regarded Prophet Muhammad as a model of reformation, renaissance, and socio-political justice. They saw in him an example of a just and enlightened leader.

Prophet Muhammad's image in the Western world has been shaped by a complex interplay of geopolitics, religious dynamics, and intellectual biases. While some Western figures perpetuated negative stereotypes, others admired him for his perceived qualities of reformation and justice. Understanding these diverse perceptions is essential for fostering intercultural dialogue and addressing historical biases that continue to influence Western views of Islam and its Prophet.

The Influence of Socinianism and Unitarianism on European Perceptions of Islam

Socinianism, a Christian theological system that emerged in Poland during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, had a significant impact on European religious thought. This essay explores the Socinian belief system, its similarities to Islamic principles, and the historical context that led to the conversion of some Europeans to Islam. It also examines the reactions of ecclesiastical and monarchial authorities in Europe to this perceived threat, shedding light on the complex interplay between religious beliefs and political power.

Socinianism and Its Tenets

Socinianism, named after its proponent Fausto Sozzini (Latin: Faustus Socinus), developed within the Polish Brethren in the Minor Reformed Church of Poland. The Socinian statement of faith, exemplified in the Racovian Catechism, emphasized human reason and rationality over revelation. It rejected the doctrine of the Trinity as irrational and upheld the unipersonality of God. Additionally, Socinians denied the divinity of Jesus, highlighting his humanity and messianic role.

The Influence of Racovian Catechism

The Socinian Creed “Racovian Catechism”, dedicated to King James I of England, was first published in England in 1609. However, it faced public condemnation and burning. In 1640, the Laudian Canon was introduced in England to suppress the impact of Racovianism. John Biddle, the founder of English Unitarianism, translated the Catechism into English and published it in 1652. The Racovian theology bore striking resemblances to the Islamic outlook and the model of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), prompting some to refer to it as a "Racovian Alcoran."

Socinianism and the Path to Islam

The theological transition from Socinianism to Islam was not uncommon in many parts of Europe, including Holland and England. Socinianism and Unitarianism were closely associated with Islam, leading orthodox theologians to perceive Unitarians as crypto-Muslims. This association was so strong that reports emerged of a significant number of Christians and Britons converting to Islam.

Factors Leading to Conversion

Several factors contributed to the conversion of Europeans to Islam. The Islamic creed, "There is no god but One God," resonated with human reason and logic, offering a simpler and more logical alternative to the complex Christian mysteries, such as the Trinity. Additionally, the Christian religious establishment's elaborate rituals, claims of exclusive mediatorial roles, and abuse of spiritual and civil powers alienated many sincere Christians. This abuse of power, religious persecution, and dogmatic imposition of irrational beliefs, such as the Trinity, led to a loss of faith among some.

Islam's Appeal: Rationality and Religious Freedom

Islam's appeal lay in its simplicity, emphasis on rationality, and promotion of religious freedom. Daily prayers, alms-giving, fasting, and pilgrimage were straightforward and socially valuable rituals. Islam allowed freedom of religious belief and pluralism, permitting Jews, Christians, and individuals of other faiths to practice their religions as long as it did not disrupt public discourse or political authority. The concept of Jizyah, a small tribute for religious freedom, was also introduced for religious minorities.

Openness to Debate and Dialogue

While living among Muslims, some Jews and Christians openly challenged Islamic beliefs while defending their own religious traditions. This intellectual engagement was possible due to the relatively open nature of Islamic civilization, which allowed religious pluralism, interfaith debates, and intra-faith discussions. In contrast, such freedoms were prohibited in the Christian world since the fourth century Nicene Council and the Justinian codes of the sixth century AD.

Socinianism and Conversion to Islam

The allure of the Islamic world, particularly the Ottoman Empire, offered opportunities for political power, economic progress, and religious freedom. Europeans from various backgrounds, including intellectuals, sailors, craftsmen, and even felons, converted to Islam to escape persecution and benefit from these opportunities. Many European cities and towns had Muslim converts with distinct Turkish attire and customs.

Socinianism and Unitarianism in Europe had a profound impact on religious thought, leading to a theological transition that sometimes culminated in the conversion of Europeans to Islam. The simplicity and rationality of Islamic beliefs, coupled with the oppressive practices of the Christian religious establishment (Church), contributed to this trend. The allure of political power, economic progress, and religious freedom in the Islamic world further fueled conversions. Consequently, European ecclesiastical and monarchial authorities perceived this conversion as a threat and sponsored polemical literature against Islam and its Prophet, further entrenching the divide between religious beliefs and political power in Europe.

Henry Stubbe: A Radical Thinker and His Influence on Enlightenment Ideas

Henry Stubbe (1632–1676), a prominent English thinker of the 17th century, is known for his radical views and intellectual contributions that had a lasting impact on Enlightenment thought. Stubbe's close association with figures like John Locke and Isaac Newton, as well as his potential conversion to Islam, make him a fascinating figure in the history of ideas. Let us explore Stubbe's life, his ideas, and his influence on the intellectual landscape of his time and beyond.

Early Life and Education

Henry Stubbe's intellectual journey began in his early years when he attended Westminster School in London, where he formed a lasting friendship with John Locke. He later continued his education at Christ Church, Oxford, where he crossed paths with John Locke, Robert Boyle, and many other members of the Royal Society. It was at Oxford that Stubbe, Locke, and Boyle studied under the guidance of Dr. Edward Pococke, an English Orientalist and biblical scholar who lived many years in Aleppo and Istanbul.

Influence of Dr. Edward Pococke

Dr. Edward Pococke, who had spent extensive time in Aleppo and Constantinople learning Arabic, Islamic culture, and theology, played a crucial role in shaping Stubbe's intellectual development. Pococke's expertise in Islamic theology, history, and political thought had a profound impact on his students, including Stubbe. Pococke's manuscripts and classes introduced them to a world of knowledge beyond their Christian upbringing.

Stubbe's Influential Work: "An Account of the Rise and Progress of Mahometanism"

In 1674, Stubbe published his influential work, "An Account of the Rise and Progress of Mahometanism, and a Vindication of Him and His Religion from the Calumnies of the Christians." This book is a testament to Stubbe's radical and unorthodox beliefs, which challenged traditional Christian doctrines and dogmas.

Parallel Between Stubbe's Ideas and Islamic Principles

Stubbe's work presents a remarkable parallel between his ideas and Islamic principles. He argued that the core message of salvation preached by all the prophets, from Adam and Noah to the last Prophet, Muhammad, emphasized divine unity. He vehemently criticized the Christian dogma of the Trinity and the divinity of Jesus, denouncing it as "tri-theism" and paganism. According to Stubbe, the Christian church had corrupted the original message of Jesus and distorted it after the Council of Nicaea.

Stubbe's Vision of "Mahometan Christianity"

Stubbe's ideas extended to the notion of a "Mahometan Christianity," which advocated for a civil religion based on a "deistical minimum." This minimalistic religion, common to Jews, Muslims, and primitive Christians, focused on the belief in a transcendent and just God. Stubbe argued that Jesus was sent to rectify Jewish excesses, and Prophet Muhammad aimed to "revive ancient Christianity." His vision was rooted in the belief that Islam represented a return to the original message of Jesus and his apostles.

Influence on English Deism

Stubbe's ideas had a significant influence on the development of English deism, particularly through his association with Charles Blount. Deism, which emphasized a rational, natural religion, resonated with Stubbe's concept of "Mahometan Christianity." The influence of Stubbe's ideas can also be traced in the Quakers, many radical enlighteners, and the religious ideologies of many of the Founding Fathers of America.

Stubbe's Advocacy for Religious Tolerance

One of Stubbe's noteworthy contributions was his advocacy for religious pluralism and toleration, which he admired in Islamic governance. He emphasized that Prophet Muhammad allowed religious diversity and freedom of belief, except for idolatry. Stubbe believed that European nations should follow the example of the Muslim Turkish Empire and allow religious freedom, worship, and freedom of conscience. He wanted to turn England into a Turkish colony.

Henry Stubbe's life and ideas represent a fascinating intersection of intellectual curiosity, religious pluralism, and radical thought in 17th-century England. His potential conversion to Islam and his association with influential figures like John Locke, Robert Boyle and the Whig leader Shaftesbury underlines the complexity of his intellectual journey. Stubbe's advocacy for a "Mahometan Christianity" and his promotion of religious tolerance left a lasting imprint on the development of English deism and Enlightenment thought. His ideas continue to be relevant in discussions about the intersection of faith, reason, and religious diversity in the modern world.

John Toland's Influence on the Interpretation of Islamic Thought in the 18th Century

John Toland (1670–1722), a prominent figure in the 18th-century Enlightenment, played a significant role in advancing the interpretation of Islamic thought, particularly through his book "Nazarenus: or Jewish, Gentile and Mahometan Christianity." Let us delve into Toland's life, his ideas on the commonality of religious beliefs among Prophets, his emphasis on the Gospel of Barnabas, and his advocacy for religious tolerance, shedding light on his lasting impact on the intellectual landscape of his time.

Early Life and Works

John Toland's intellectual journey began with his 1699 work "Amyntor: Or a Defence of Milton's Life," in which he challenged the authenticity and validity of the New Testament. Toland categorized New Testament material into three groups: orthodox, apocryphal, and fictitious, asserting that it was canonized long after the time of Jesus and his original followers, rendering it an unreliable source for understanding Jesus' beliefs and teachings.

The Influence of Henry Stubbe

Toland was greatly influenced by Henry Stubbe's historical thesis, particularly regarding the authenticity of Islamic thought and Muhammaden Christianity. Stubbe had argued for the continuity of Judaic, Christian, and Islamic theology, emphasizing the message of divine unity preached by all the Prophets. Toland readily incorporated Stubbe's arguments into his own work, building upon the idea that the original followers of Jesus were the Nazarenes (Arabic Nasara).

The Gospel of Barnabas and "Nazarenus"

In 1709, Toland discovered a manuscript of the Gospel of Barnabas in Amsterdam, thanks to his acquaintance with Prince Eugene of Vienna. This discovery became a pivotal point in his intellectual journey, and he began working on "Nazarenus" in 1710, drawing extensively from the Gospel of Barnabas. In this work, Toland continued Stubbe's line of thought by asserting that the fundamental doctrines of Islam had their origins in the earliest monuments of the Christian religion. Islam was in reality the true inheritor of Jesus’ Christianity.

The Commonality of Religious Beliefs Among Prophets

Toland, like Stubbe, believed that the message of divine unity, charity, and moral responsibility was a common thread running through the teachings of all the Prophets, starting with Adam. He argued that Jesus had come to correct Jewish excesses, and Prophet Muhammad aimed to rectify Christian corruptions such as the doctrine of the Trinity, original sin, and the idea of salvation through crucifixion. Toland maintained that the Nazarenes, or Ebionites, represented the original followers of Jesus who considered Paul to be an apostate. It was St. Paul who corrupted the original Unitarian Christianity.

The Succession of Prophets

Toland embraced the Islamic notion of the succession of prophets, each introducing new institutions while maintaining the core of the same religion. He believed that the prophecy of Muhammad's arrival, foretelling that he would come "to complete or perfect all things," had been intentionally erased from the Christian Scripture by priests. Toland's views aligned with the idea that religious diversity should be embraced, and he advocated for the tolerance of Muslims in Europe, similar to the way Christians and Jews were tolerated in the Muslim world.

Toland's Advocacy for Religious Tolerance

Toland's advocacy for religious tolerance extended to his belief that Muslims should be granted the same rights and freedoms enjoyed by Christians and Jews in the Muslim Ottoman Empire. He argued that Europe should follow the example of Islamic governance, which allowed for religious diversity and freedom of belief, expression, worship, and conscience. This viewpoint was a significant departure from the prevailing religious norms of his time.

John Toland's intellectual contributions in the 18th century had a profound impact on the interpretation of Islamic thought and the understanding of religious commonalities among Prophets. His association with Henry Stubbe and the discovery of the Gospel of Barnabas in Amsterdam greatly influenced his views on the continuity of religious beliefs. Toland's emphasis on the succession of prophets and his advocacy for religious tolerance left a lasting imprint on Enlightenment thought. His work challenged the prevailing religious orthodoxy of his era and contributed to the broader discussion of faith, reason, and religious diversity. John Toland's legacy endures as a testament to the Enlightenment's pursuit of religious pluralism and intellectual freedom.

The Influence of Socinianism and Islamic Thought on English Intellectuals in the 17th and 18th Centuries

The 17th and 18th centuries were marked by a significant intellectual and theological transformation in England. The rise of Socinianism, a theological movement that rejected traditional Christian doctrines like the Trinity and original sin, and the growing interest in Islamic thought had a profound impact on English intellectuals of the time. Now we will explore the influence of Socinianism and Islamic ideas on figures like Charles Blount, John Milton, Isaac Newton, and others, shedding light on their contributions to the intellectual landscape of the era.

Charles Blount and Henry Stubbe

Charles Blount, known for his work "Oracles of Reason" (1693), faced accusations of plagiarism, which have raised questions about the origins of his ideas. Blount's engagement with Socinianism and Islamic thought is evident in his writings, but the sources of his inspiration remain debated. His work challenged traditional Christian beliefs and questioned the authenticity of the New Testament. Modern researchers such as Jacob show that Blount copied a great deal from Henry Stubbe’s clandestine manuscripts.

Sir John Finch's Correspondence

Sir John Finch's correspondence with Lord Conway in 1675 provides another dimension to the influence of Islamic thought. Finch was the English Levant Company’s ambassador in Istanbul for many years. In these letters, Finch offers a political account of the growth of Islam, highlighting the Islamic notion of the unipersonality of God. He portrays Muhammad as a wise prince and legislator, reflecting a nuanced view of Islam prevalent among English elites.

The Prevalence of Islamic Ideas

Nabil Matar and other scholars have demonstrated that interest in Islamic ideas, philosophy, sciences, and institutions was widespread among the English intelligentsia since the 1660s. This interest extended to various aspects of Islamic culture, including coffee, costumes, and religious doctrine, signaling a growing curiosity about Islamic civilization.

Arabic Studies in England

G.A. Russell's work on the "Arabick" interest of natural philosophers in the 17th century reveals that Arabic manuscripts were translated into Latin and English during this period. This direct engagement with Arabic sources had a substantial impact on English scholars and scientists, fostering a deeper understanding of Islamic thought and sciences

John Milton's Socinianism

John Milton, initially associated with Arminianism, underwent a transformation in his religious beliefs. His posthumously published manuscript, "On Christian Doctrine," revealed his adoption of Socinian/Unitarian beliefs. This shift marked a departure from orthodox Christianity and aligned Milton with the Socinian perspective on the Trinity and clerical authority.

Isaac Newton's Socinianism

Isaac Newton, a close associate of John Locke, also embraced Socinianism. His teacher and mentor Isaac Barrow had spent considerable time in Istanbul and Izmir. The vice chancellor of Newton’s Cambridge University, John Covel, was the Levant Company’s chaplain in Istanbul for almost a decade. Their unorthodox religious views impacted Newton’s mindset.

Stephen David Snobelen's research establishes Newton's rejection of the Trinity and other traditional Christian doctrines. Newton believed that Prophet Muhammad was a genuine prophet sent to rectify Christian corruption, emphasizing the importance of his theological views.

Arthur Bury's Defense of Islam

Arthur Bury's 1690 work, "The Naked Gospel," defended Islamic thought against claims of imposture and violence. Bury argued that Islam, like Christianity, represented a divine providence and a reformative message. He challenged the prevailing negative perceptions of Muhammad and Islam, advocating for a more nuanced understanding.

Stephen Nye's Socinian Perspective

Nye, in his "Brief History of the Unitarians, called also Socinians" (1687), categorically rejected contemporary Christianity's connection to the original message of Jesus Christ. He argued that the unipersonality of God had survived only in the Turkish or Mahomaten tradition. Nye defended Islam and Prophet Muhammad as proponents of monotheism.

The 17th and 18th centuries witnessed a complex interplay of Socinianism and Islamic thought within the intellectual circles of England. Figures like Charles Blount, John Milton, Isaac Newton, Arthur Bury, and Stephen Nye contributed to a growing discourse that challenged traditional Christian doctrines and embraced aspects of Islamic thought. They revived an enlightened portrayal of Prophet Muhammad as a sage legislator and prophet of monotheistic, transcendental morality.  

This period of intellectual exploration and religious reform paved the way for Enlightenment ideals and the promotion of religious tolerance. The influence of Socinianism and Islamic ideas on English intellectuals reflected a broader transformation in European thought and contributed to the evolving religious and philosophical landscape of the era.

It is evident that during the long 17^th and 18^th centuries in England, Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) was held in high esteem as a legitimate leader, legislator, and catalyst for reform. There was a concerted effort among certain European intellectuals to advocate for the emulation of his example as a means to reform European society. These individuals, known as Unitarians, would gather at the residence of Thomas Firmin (1632–1697), an English entrepreneur, philanthropist, and publisher aligned with the Unitarian movement. Firmin played a pivotal role in supporting the influential philosopher John Locke and his works. John Edwards was not off the mark when he contended that John Locke was "confounding Turkey with Christendom," highlighting that English Unitarians, including prominent figures like Isaac Newton and John Locke, sought to utilize the Islamic Turkish model for the internal reformation of the Christian world.

It should now be apparent that Islamic thought and sources exerted a significant influence and made substantial contributions to Europe's radical Enlightenment movement and the early American Revolution, with Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) serving as a guiding model. Substantial and credible historical evidence demonstrates that many of the Founding Fathers of the United States identified as either "deists" or "Unitarians." Islamic thought played a direct role in shaping both of these Enlightenment ideologies through the contributions of figures like Michael Servetus, Henry Stubbe, John Toland, Stephen Nye, John Biddle, and Charles Blount, as well as movements such as the Socinians.

Prominent Founding Fathers of America, such as Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, were directly influenced by English thinkers like John Locke, Isaac Newton, and Thomas Hobbes, who themselves were exposed to Islamic sciences, philosophy, theology, political thought, and morality. Within these circles of radical Enlightenment, Prophet Muhammad was not regarded as an impostor but rather as a genuine religious, moral, and political leader. He was lauded as a true legislator who not only influenced minds and spirits but also transformed individuals, societies, governments, and empires. Prophet Muhammad was the “Prophet of Enlightenment.”

For instance Alphonse de LaMartaine, a French writer, poet and politician who was instrumental in the foundation of the Second French Republic, in his book “Historie de la Turquie,” (Paris, 1854), said the following about Prophet Muhammad (PBUH):

“Never has a man set for himself, voluntarily or involuntarily, a more sublime aim, since this aim was superhuman; to subvert superstitions which had been imposed between man and his Creator, to render God unto man and man unto God; to restore the rational and sacred idea of divinity amidst the chaos of the material and disfigured gods of idolatry, then existing. Never has a man undertaken a work so far beyond human power with so feeble means, for he (Muhammad) had in the conception as well as in the execution of such a great design, no other instrument than himself and no other aid except a handful of men living in a corner of the desert. Finally, never has a man accomplished such a huge and lasting revolution in the world, because in less than two centuries after its appearance, Islam, in faith and in arms, reigned over the whole of Arabia, and conquered, in God’s name, Persia Khorasan, Transoxania, Western India, Syria, Egypt, Abyssinia, all the known continent of Northern Africa, numerous islands of the Mediterranean Sea, Spain, and part of Gaul.”

He continued:

“If greatness of purpose, smallness of means, and astonishing results are the three criteria of a human genius, who could dare compare any great man in history with Muhammad? The most famous men created arms, laws, and empires only. They founded, if anything at all, no more than material powers which often crumbled away before their eyes. This man moved not only armies, legislations, empires, peoples, dynasties, but millions of men in one-third of the then inhabited world; and more than that, he moved the altars, the gods, the religions, the ideas, the beliefs and the souls.”

He further observed:

“On the basis of a Book, every letter which has become law, he created a spiritual nationality which blend together peoples of every tongue and race. He has left the indelible characteristic of this Muslim nationality the hatred of false gods and the passion for the One and Immaterial God. This avenging patriotism against the profanation of Heaven formed the virtue of the followers of Muhammad; the conquest of one-third the earth to the dogma was his miracle; or rather it was not the miracle of man but that of reason. The idea of the unity of God, proclaimed amidst the exhaustion of the fabulous theogonies, was in itself such a miracle that upon it’s utterance from his lips it destroyed all the ancient temples of idols and set on fire one-third of the world. His life, his meditations, his heroic revelings against the superstitions of his country, and his boldness in defying the furies of idolatry, his firmness in enduring them for fifteen years in Mecca, his acceptance of the role of public scorn and almost of being a victim of his fellow countrymen… This dogma was twofold the unity of God and the immateriality of God: the former telling what God is, the latter telling what God is not; the one overthrowing false gods with the sword, the other starting an idea with words. Philosopher, Orator, Apostle, Legislator, Conqueror of Ideas, Restorer of Rational beliefs…. The founder of twenty terrestrial empires and of one spiritual empire that is Muhammad. As regards all standards by which human greatness may be measured, we may well ask, is there any man greater than he?”

In 1841, renowned Scottish historian Thomas Carlyle (1795–1881), wrote:

A silent great soul; he was one of those who cannot but be in earnest; whom Nature herself had appointed to be sincere…. Such sincerity, as we named it, has in very truth something of divine. The word of such a man is a Voice direct from Nature’s own Heart…. To be Sheik of Mecca or Arabia, and have a bit of gilt-wood put into your hand, … will that be one’s salvation? I decidedly think not. We leave it altogether, this impostor hypothesis, as not credible; not very tolerable even, worthy chiefly of dismissal by us.

Many writers followed Carlyle in this regard. Ernest Renan (1823-1892), a French philosopher, described Muhammad as “a man gentle, sensible, faithful, and free from hatred. His affections were sincere; his character in general bent to benevolence… All his conduct gives the lie to the enterprising audacious character which has been commonly attributed to him.”

James William Hampson Stobart, Principal of La Martiniere College, Lucknow, India, argued that “the impostor pictured by some writers is refuted alike by his unswerving belief in the truth of his own mission, by the loyalty and unshaken confidence of his companions, who had ample opportunities of forming a right estimate of his sincerity, and, finally, by the magnitude of the task which he brought to so successful an issue. No impostor, it may safely be said, could have accomplished so mighty a work. No one unsupported by a living faith in the reality of his mission, in the goodness of his cause, could have maintained the same consistent attitude through long years of adverse fortune, alike in the day of victory and the hour of defeat, in the plenitude of his power and at the moment of death.”

Reverend Bosworth Smith in ‘Muhammad and Muhammadanism,’ (London, 1874) stated:

“Head of the State as well as the Church, he was Caesar and Pope in one; but he was Pope without the Pope’s pretensions, and Caesar without the legions of Caesar, without a standing army, without a bodyguard, without a police force, without a fixed revenue. If ever a man ruled by a right divine, it was Muhammad, for he had all the powers without their support. He cared not for the dressings of power. The simplicity of his private life was in keeping with his public life.”

“In Mohammadanism everything is different here. Instead of the shadowy and the mysterious, we have history….We know of the external history of Muhammad….while for his internal history after his mission had been proclaimed, we have a book absolutely unique in its origin, in its preservation….on the Substantial authority of which no one has ever been able to cast a serious doubt.”

Michael H. Hart, an American historian in his famous book “The 100, a Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History” has no hesitation to rank Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) as the most influential man in human history. This courageous selection did not cause any uproar among American scholarship but was often accepted as a debatable historical fact. Hart defended his choice of Muhammad (PBUH) with the following arguments:

“My choice of Muhammad to lead the list of the world’s most influential persons may surprise some readers and may be questioned by others, but he was the only man in history who was supremely successful on both the religious and secular levels. Of humble origins, Muhammad founded and promulgated one of the world’s great religions, and became an immensely effective political leader. Today, thirteen centuries after his death, his influence is still powerful and pervasive. The majority of the persons in this book had the advantage of being born and raised in centers of civilization, highly cultured or politically pivotal nations. Muhammad, however, was born in the year 570, in the city of Mecca, in southern Arabia, at that time a backward area of the world, far from the centers of trade, art, and learning. Orphaned at age six, he was reared in modest surroundings. Islamic tradition tells us that he was illiterate. His economic position improved when, at age twenty-five, he married a wealthy widow. Nevertheless, as he approached forty, there was little outward indication that he was a remarkable person.”

“How, then, is one to assess the overall impact of Muhammad on human history? Like all religions, Islam exerts an enormous influence upon the lives of its followers. It is for this reason that the founders of the world’s great religions all figure prominently in this book. Since there are roughly twice as many Christians as Moslems in the world, it may initially seem strange that Muhammad has been ranked higher than Jesus. There are two principal reasons for that decision. First, Muhammad played a far more important role in the development of Islam than Jesus did in the development of Christianity. Although Jesus was responsible for the main ethical and moral precepts of Christianity (insofar as these differed from Judaism), St. Paul was the main developer of Christian theology, its principal proselytizer, and the author of a large portion of the New Testament. Muhammad, however, was responsible for both the theology of Islam and its main ethical and moral principles. In addition, he played the key role in proselytizing the new faith, and in establishing the religious practices of Islam. Moreover, he is the author of the Moslem holy scriptures, the Koran, a collection of certain of Muhammad’s insights that he believed had been directly revealed to him by Allah. Most of these utterances were copied more or less faithfully during Muhammad’s lifetime and were collected together in authoritative form not long after his death. The Koran therefore, closely represents Muhammad’s ideas and teachings and to a considerable extent his exact words. No such detailed compilation of the teachings of Christ has survived. Since the Koran is at least as important to Moslems as the Bible is to Christians, the influence of Muhammad through the medium of the Koran has been enormous. It is probable that the relative influence of Muhammad on Islam has been larger than the combined influence of Jesus Christ and St. Paul on Christianity.”

“On the purely religious level, then, it seems likely that Muhammad has been as influential in human history as Jesus. Furthermore, Muhammad (unlike Jesus) was a secular as well as a religious leader. In fact, as the driving force behind the Arab conquests, he may well rank as the most influential political leader of all time. Of many important historical events, one might say that they were inevitable and would have occurred even without the particular political leader who guided them. For example, the South American colonies would probably have won their independence from Spain even if Simon Bolivar had never lived. But this cannot be said of the Arab conquests. Nothing similar had occurred before Muhammad, and there is no reason to believe that the conquests would have been achieved without him. The only comparable conquests in human history are those of the Mongols in the thirteenth century, which were primarily due to the influence of Genghis Khan. These conquests, however, though more extensive than those of the Arabs, did not prove permanent, and today the only areas occupied by the Mongols are those that they held prior to the time of Genghis Khan. It is far different with the conquests of the Arabs. From Iraq to Morocco, there extends a whole chain of Moslem nations united not merely by their faith in Islam, but also by their Arabic language, history, and culture.”

The American perspective on Islam and their reverence for Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) underwent a significant transformation in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks. This transformation can be categorized into four main responses:

Religious Ideologues: Among those who openly expressed animosity towards Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) were prominent figures within the Evangelical and ultra-right movements, such as Pat Robertson, Jerry Falwell, and Franklin Graham. Their aversion to the Prophet stemmed from deep-seated ideological and theological differences with Islam. For instance, Pat Robertson, during an appearance on the Sean Hannity radio program, made derogatory comments about Prophet Muhammad, describing him as a "wild-eyed fanatic," a "robber," and a "brigand." Robertson went on to assert that the terrorists' actions were not a distortion of Islam but a direct reflection of it. He also claimed that the Quran was essentially a theft of Jewish theology. These individuals used their platforms to disseminate hatred against the Prophet and promote negative stereotypes of Islam.

Neo-Cons & Political Ideologues: Another category of individuals who contributed to the post-9/11 demonization of Prophet Muhammad and Islam included neo-conservatives and political ideologues like Frank Gaffney, Steven Emerson, William Boykin, Pamela Geller, David Horowitz, Daniel Pipes, Robert Spencer, William Gawthrop, and David Yarushalmi. These figures portrayed Islam as a global threat to peace, security, and democracy. They depicted Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) as a model for violent terrorism, chaos, and political instability. Many of them were associated with so-called "think tanks" and foundations with hidden agendas, such as supporting Zionism and Capitalism. They consistently vilified the Prophet as a symbol of violence, terrorism, insecurity, and economic instability. The current war in Gaza has amplified their attacks on Prophet Muhammad, Islam and Muslims.

For example, William Gawthrop, who played a pivotal role in counterintelligence and counterterrorism efforts at the Pentagon, argued that the U.S. military and intelligence agencies needed to study Prophet Muhammad's military doctrine to defeat jihadist terrorists. He contended that Muhammad's mindset was a source of terrorism and that terrorism in Islam was rooted in the strategic themes of the religion, including the example of Muhammad, the Quran, the hadiths, Islamic law, the pillars of faith, and jihad.

Opportunists and Sympathizers: There were opportunistic individuals and self-proclaimed experts on Islam, as well as certain politicians, who exploited the Western world's fear of political Islam, revival movements, and insurgencies for personal financial gain. They profited from anti-Islamic sentiments, with a particular focus on targeting Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and the Quran—the two central sources of Islamic faith. Examples included the Danish Cartoonist Jyllands Posten, Nakoula Basseley Nakoula, the producer of the controversial film "Innocence of Muslims," Pastors Gary Vine and Terry Jones, Walid Shoebat, Nonie Darwish, Brigitte Gabriel, Ayaan Hersi Ali, and Andrew Bostom. Certain political factions, such as the Tea Party Patriots, and politicians like Congressmen Allen West and Peter King, also exploited public fears of Islam and Sharia to stereotype Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) as a symbol of violence, terrorism, and barbarism. These opportunistic figures used the Prophet as a political tool to capture the attention and sympathy of voters.

Ignorant & Ill-Educated: A significant portion of Westerners remained largely ignorant about Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and harbored negative sentiments towards him due to misinformation propagated by the media. Proper education could potentially alter their perceptions of the Prophet.

On the contrary, those who opposed extreme right-wing ideologies, neo-conservatism, evangelism, militarism, Zionism, excessive capitalism, racism, and discrimination often expressed sympathy for Muslims, Islam, and the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). These individuals and groups had often been targets of the aforementioned extreme ideologies, which employed cultural, political, economic, and social pressures, even resorting to verbal and psychological terrorism, to suppress dissenting voices. The moderate liberals denounced the dehumanization of Muslims and the vilification of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Many individuals are taking a stand in solidarity with the people of Gaza, expressing their opposition to the indiscriminate bombing of civilian areas, including residential blocks, schools, hospitals, mosques (masjids), and churches. In response to the remarkable sacrifices made by the people of Gaza and their unwavering faith and trust in God, a significant number of people are embracing Islam.

The Western world continues to grapple with a complex paradox involving both animosity and reverence for Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Those who criticize and belittle him unwittingly bring his name to the forefront of public discourse, albeit in a negative context. In response, champions of the Prophet actively work to counteract these unfavorable perceptions, emphasizing his virtuous qualities and showcasing his exemplary role for humanity. This enduring struggle ultimately portrays Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) in a positive and admirable light, gradually winning over the hearts and minds of people. Within this ongoing dynamic, the Prophet emerges as the ultimate victor, with his genuine character prevailing despite the obstacles and challenges he faces.