Western Approaches to the Qur'an

Abstract

The Western criticism of the Qur'an is a complex and evolving subject, deeply intertwined with historical, religious, and cultural perspectives. This criticism spans over a millennium and reflects various shifts in attitudes and approaches towards Islam and its foundational text. The emergence of Islam in the 7th century presented a significant challenge to the existing religious and political powers of the time, notably the Christian Byzantium Empire and the Zoroastrian Persian Empire. This rapid expansion of Islam sparked initial hostility, leading to the propagation of negative narratives about the Qur'an. In the medieval period, notable scholars and religious figures depicted Prophet Muhammad (SAW) as a charlatan, Islam as heretical, and the Qur'an as nonsensical. The Crusades further intensified this animosity, with absurd tales like Prophet Muhammad being guided by a dove or a bull carrying the Qur'an. Despite the Enlightenment era's emphasis on rationality and freedom from dogmatism, influential works continued the tradition of portraying Prophet Muhammad and the Qur’an negatively. These works were partly a reaction against sympathetic views of Islam by some English and French Unitarians and were marked by a return to medieval stereotypes. Scottish historian Thomas Carlyle broke from the traditional view, presenting Prophet Muhammad as sincere and earnest. This shift was echoed by other scholars who began to challenge the long-held perceptions of Prophet Muhammad and the Qur'an. However, biases persisted, with the Qur'an often criticized for its perceived disjointedness and tedium. In contemporary Western academia, opinions vary. Scholars like William Montgomery Watt and Sir James Norman Anderson have acknowledged the Qur'an's literary nature while questioning its divine origin. Others, like Patricia Crone and Michael Cook, criticized the Qur'an for its structure and language. However, some modern Western scholars have defended the Qur'an's coherence and thematic unity. Modern Muslim scholars like Abul A'la Mawdudi, Hamiduddin Farahi, Amin Ahsan Islahi, and Fazlur Rahman have vigorously defended the Qur'anic structure, language, and contents, emphasizing its thematic coherence.

Western Criticism of the Qur’an

In the realm of Western academic discourse, a spectrum of interpretative stances has evolved concerning the Qur'an's genesis, intrinsic character, stylistic elements, linguistic attributes, and structural composition. These perspectives are broadly categorizable into three distinct classifications: those exhibiting an Islamophobic bias, those maintaining a neutral or balanced approach, and those demonstrating a supportive or affirming viewpoint. Regrettably, from the early days of Islam to the present, there have consistently been individuals who have regarded the Qur'an as a fraudulent work filled with fabricated tales, irrationalities, inconsistencies, contradictions, and violence. Throughout history, from the era of Rudolph de Ludheim in 620 AD to modern times, the Qur’an has often been misrepresented by various individuals. This misrepresentation paints it as a contradictory text primarily focused on themes of violence, warfare, killing, beheading, and destruction, rather than its broader religious, moral, spiritual, and cultural context. Such interpretations, often lacking in scholarly rigor, have been perpetuated by certain individuals, including contemporary figures such as Robert Spencer (b. 1962), Daniel Pipes (b. 1949), Ibn Warraq (b. 1946), and others. Many of these self-taught Islamophobes employ criticism of the Qur’an to combat Islam and Muslims. But what has fueled this enduring animosity?

Geopolitics vs. Scholarship

Islam emerged in the seventh century in the Arabian Peninsula, primarily characterized by vast deserts and arid landscapes. The Arab Bedouins were no match to the mighty Christian Byzantium Empire and the powerful Zoroastrian Persian Empire but they ransacked both superpowers of the then-known world in a short period. Islam became the sudden powerhouse and swiftly expanded its territory at an unprecedented pace, conquering substantial portions of the Middle East and North Africa shortly after the death of its founder. This remarkable success posed a significant threat to existing religious powers. Consequently, the seeds of opposition and propaganda against Islam, its scripture, and its Prophet were sown, eventually growing into vehement and relentless hostility. 

The most odious criticisms of the Qur'an, Prophet Muhammad (SAW,) and Islam usually emerge during periods of geopolitical hostilities between the Muslim East and the imperial Christian West. When the Christian world feels threatened by Muslim forces or challenged by Islamic revival or resistance movements or by Muslim immigrants, it resorts to negative portrayals of the Qur'an, the Prophet, Islam, and Muslims. Cartoons, pamphlets, books, and other materials vilifying Prophet Muhammad and the Qur'an are used to galvanize support against Muslims. It is essential to recognize that attacking the Qur'an or Muhammad's (SAW) character is a strategic move aimed at weakening Muslim presence, resolve, power, and unity.

Medieval Criticisms

From the time of Rudolph de Ludheim in 620 AD to the present day, this antipathy has persisted. Prominent figures such as Nicholas of Cusa (1401–1464), a German philosopher and bishop; Juan Luis Vives (1493–1540), a Spanish scholar and humanist from Valencia; Louis Maracci (1612–1700), an Italian Catholic priest who translated the Qur'an into Latin in 1698 in Padua; Johann Jakob Hottinger (1652–1735), a theologian from Zurich; Theodore Bibliander (1506–1564), a Swiss orientalist; Humphrey Prideaux (1648–1724), an Oxford theologian; and many others have, throughout the centuries, portrayed the Prophet as an imposter, Islam as a collection of heresies, Muslims as barbaric, and the Qur'an as a nonsensical text.

With the advent of the Crusades, the rhetoric and portrayal of Prophet Muhammad, the Qur'an, and its message grew increasingly bitter. During the Middle Ages, an absurd narrative involving a "dove" and a "bull" became a prevalent interpretation of Islamic revelation. One account even claimed that a white bull, which had terrified the population, miraculously carried the Qur'an between its horns, which Muhammad had brought to the Arabs. Another tale suggested that Muhammad trained a dove to peck at peas from his ears, creating the illusion that the Holy Spirit was whispering to him. This hostile narrative continued to shape Western perceptions of Islam and its foundational text.

Enlightenment Era Criticism

In the year 1697, during the early stages of the Enlightenment period, two influential books emerged that focused on Islam. The first of these works, titled "Bibliotèque Orientale," was authored by Barthelmy d’Herbelot de Molainville, a French orientalist. In this book, he characterizes Prophet Muhammad with the following words: "This is the famous impostor Mahomet, Author and Founder of a heresy which has taken on the name of religion, which we call Mohammadan."

The second book was written by Humphry Prideaux, a Doctor of Divinity, and was titled "The History of The Life of The Great Impostor Mahomet." In his writings about the Prophet, Prideaux describes the early part of Muhammad's life as one marked by wickedness and licentious behavior, including a penchant for theft, plunder, and violence. He attributes two predominant passions to Muhammad, namely ambition and lust, claiming that these desires shaped the foundation of his religion. Prideaux contends that the Quran itself contains numerous injunctions for war and bloodshed to promote ambition, as well as provisions that permit the use of women for gratifying lust, either in this life or the hereafter.

These books were compiled to counteract the English and French Unitarians, Socinians, and anti-Trinitarians' sympathetic approach to Islam, the Quran, and Muhammad. In the early Enlightenment era, Prophet Muhammad was considered an anti-clerical hero who purged Christianity of superstitious doctrines such as the Trinity and established a tolerant, pluralist, and moral faith, Islam, meticulously preserved in the Muslim scripture, the Holy Quran. The French de Molainville and English Prideaux rejected that approach by reversing to the old medieval stereotypes and biases.

Ironically, despite the Enlightenment being an era characterized by the supposed embrace of rationality, freedom from dogmatism, and the rejection of religious biases, both of these books revert to the same irrational and biased propaganda against Prophet Muhammad that had prevailed in the Middle Ages. This trend of hostility towards Muhammad persists even into the eighteenth century, with writers such as Simon Ockley, George Sale, Voltaire, and historians like Gibbon continuing to accuse Muhammad of insincerity, ambition, and lust, partly due to censorship requirements and partly as a surrogate for Jesus. For instance, Simon Ockley portrays Muhammad as a cunning and crafty individual who feigned virtuous qualities while harboring ambitions and lustful desires in his heart.

Post Enlightenment Shift

In 1841, the renowned Scottish historian Thomas Carlyle took a different stance against this longstanding hostility. Carlyle rejected the notion of Muhammad as an impostor or someone driven by ambition. Instead, he viewed Muhammad as a silent and profoundly sincere individual, appointed by nature to be earnest and genuine. Carlyle argued that such sincerity had a divine quality and considered Muhammad's words as a direct expression of Nature's essence. He dismissed the impostor hypothesis as not credible and not worthy of serious consideration.

Numerous scholars, particularly in the Enlightenment era and later, presented varying viewpoints on the character of Prophet Muhammad (SAW) and the Qur'an. Ernest Renan, a French philosopher (1823–1892), portrayed Prophet Muhammad as gentle, sensible, faithful, and devoid of hatred, with a character inclined towards benevolence. He argued against the commonly held perception of Prophet Muhammad as an audacious impostor.

James William Hampson Stobart (1832-1902), Principal of La Martiniere College in Lucknow, India, countered the impostor image by highlighting Prophet Muhammad's unwavering belief in his mission, the loyalty of his companions who had firsthand knowledge of his sincerity, and the monumental achievements of his mission. Stobart asserted that no impostor could have accomplished such a monumental task and maintained steadfastness through adversity and triumph.

Despite this shift in perspective towards Prophet Muhammad (SAW), many Westerners clung to centuries-old prejudices and misconceptions about Islam. Consequently, the Qur'an was often criticized as inconsistent, disjointed, and tedious, with many considering it the word of Muhammad rather than of God. Thomas Carlyle himself, while later revising his views, initially found the Qur'an challenging to read, describing it as a cumbersome and confused compilation. Voltaire and other European readers shared a similar sentiment, criticizing the Qur'an as incomprehensible and boring.

Edward Gibbon, an English historian (1737–1794), referred to the Qur'an as an endless and incoherent collection of fables, precepts, and declamations, occasionally descending into triviality and sometimes soaring into obscurity. Hartwig Hirschfeld, a lecturer on Judaeo-Arabic studies in London, acknowledged manifold difficulties in the Qur'an, which deterred rather than encouraged its study.

Biases and stereotypes from the medieval age occasionally resurfaced in some Evangelical circles. William St. Clair Tisdall, a British historian, philologist, and missionary (1859–1928), accused Muhammad of evolving from an earnest visionary into a conscious impostor and sensualist over time. Salomon Reinach, a French archaeologist (1858–1932), criticized the Qur'an's literary merit, deeming it mediocre and unworthy of the extensive commentaries and readership it had received. 

Contemporary evangelists and Christian missionaries such as Franklin Graham, Jerry Falwell, and Pat Robertson have openly expressed animosity towards the Qur’an. Their aversion to the Qur’an stems from deep-seated ideological and theological differences with Islam. For instance, Pat Robertson, during an appearance on the Sean Hannity radio program, made derogatory comments about Prophet Muhammad, describing him as a "wild-eyed fanatic," a "robber," and a "brigand." Robertson went on to assert that the terrorists' actions were not a distortion of Islam but a direct reflection of it. He also claimed that the Quran was essentially a theft of Jewish theology.

These individuals use their platforms to disseminate hatred against the Qur’an and promote negative stereotypes of Islam. They are supported by some neo-conservatives and political ideologues like Frank Gaffney, Steven Emerson, William Boykin, Pamela Geller, David Horowitz, Daniel Pipes, Robert Spencer, William Gawthrop, and David Yarushalmi. These figures portray Islam as a global threat to peace, security, and democracy. They depict the Qur’an as the terrorists’ constitution and Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) as a model for violent terrorism, chaos, and political instability. Many of them are associated with so-called "think tanks" and foundations with hidden agendas, such as supporting Zionism and Capitalism. They consistently vilify the Qur’an as the sourcebook of violence, terrorism, beheadings, insecurity, and economic instability. The current war in Gaza has amplified their attacks on the Qur’an, Islam, and Muslims. On the contrary, those who oppose extreme right-wing ideologies, neo-conservatism, evangelism, militarism, Zionism, excessive capitalism, racism, and discrimination often express sympathy for Muslims, Islam, and the Qur’an.

Contemporary Academic Views

In contemporary Western academic circles, various views persist regarding the Qur'an and Prophet Muhammad. William Montgomery Watt, a Professor of Islamic Studies (1909–2006), affirmed Muhammad's sincerity and ability to distinguish divine revelation from personal consciousness. He recognized the presence of divine truths within the Qur'an and acknowledged its unique literary nature. However, Watt also entertained the notion that the Qur'an might have been a product of Muhammad's creative imagination and unconscious thoughts.

Sir James Norman Anderson, an English missionary and Arabist (1908–1994), regarded the Qur'an as a result of wishful thinking. Richard Bell, an Arabist based in Edinburgh (1876–1952), proposed a "written-document" hypothesis to explain perceived inconsistencies in the Qur'an, suggesting that the Prophet wrote revelations on pieces of paper and later assembled them incorrectly.

Despite acknowledging moments of beauty in the Qur'an, some scholars found it generally unengaging as a whole. Arthur Stanley Tritton, a British historian and scholar of Islam (1881–1973), noted that non-Muslims did not share the high praises heaped upon it.

Patricia Crone, a Danish historian of Islam (1945-2015), and Michael Allan Cook, a Scottish historian, and scholar of Islamic history (b. 1940), criticized the Qur'an in their controversial book "Hagarism" for its perceived lack of overall structure, frequent obscurity, inconsequential language and content, perfunctory linkage of disparate materials, and repetition of passages in different versions. Andrew Rippin (1950-2016), who served as the dean of humanities at the University of Victoria in British Columbia, Canada, pointed out that the Qur'an contains numerous ambiguities, challenging words with uncertain readings, issues related to how it is divided into sections, and apparently conflicting statements.

Contemporary Muslim Defenses

In contrast, Arthur John Arberry, a highly regarded scholar of Arabic, Persian, and Islamic studies (1905–1969), strongly criticized what he perceived as crude treatment of the Qur'an by proponents of the Higher Criticism. He argued that these scholars had attempted to deconstruct the Qur'an using artificial and arbitrary methodologies, dissecting its main body but failing to capture its essence. Arberry suggested that they resorted to explaining away what they couldn't comprehend, resulting in the dissolution of the profound inspiration found in the Qur'an. Among the most extreme proponents of this approach was the late Dr. Richard Bell.

Arberry proceeded to criticize Bell's hypothesis and the Higher Criticism of the Qur'an, contending that they subjected the text to excessive analytical dissection. Instead, he advocated for considering the Qur'an as a unified whole, encouraging readers to envision the Qur'an's vitality before it was dissected. He argued that an eternal composition like the Qur'an cannot be fully grasped through temporal criticism alone. The logic of revelation, according to Arberry, does not adhere to the rational order imposed by human scholars, as there is no linear "before" or "after" in prophetic messages. True revelation transcends the confines of time and space, unveiling itself entirely in every moment.

Modern Muslim scholars also defend the Qur'an against accusations of disjointedness, lack of structure, and ambiguity. Abul A'la Mawdudi, a Pakistani scholar and ideologue (1903–1979), argued that the Qur'an is unique in its composition, subject, and content. He believed that the unity of the Qur'an lies in its central theme—man's salvation through ethical monotheism and submission to God's moral will. Mawdudi emphasized that the Qur'an is not a historical or scientific book but a guide calling people to the right path and illuminating God's true guidance.

Mawdudi asserted that all the various themes in the Qur'an are related to its central theme, like beads of different sizes and colors strung together to form a necklace. M. Mahmud Hijazi, a contemporary Egyptian scholar of Qur'anic studies, highlighted the "topical unity" in the Qur'an, which becomes evident when verses on a particular subject are examined together. Fazlur Rahman emphasized the Qur'an's "cohesive outlook on the universe and life," arguing that it contains no internal contradictions and maintains coherence as a whole.

Hamiduddin Farahi, an Indian Islamic scholar (1863–1930), identified a central theme, which he called "Amud" or pillar, in each chapter of the Qur'an. Amin Ahsan Islahi, a Pakistani exegete (1904–1997), asserted that there is both structural and thematic coherence in the Qur'an. He elaborated on the concept of "Amud" as a method to demonstrate unity and coherence within the Qur'an, emphasizing that each chapter is a thematically complete discourse presented in a coherent structural framework.

Mustansir Mir (b, 1949), a scholar of Islamic studies at Youngstown University, has extensively examined various responses and approaches concerning the interpretation of the Qur'an. In his comprehensive discussion of Amin Ahsan Islahi's work, he concludes that Islahi has effectively demonstrated the presence of design and method within the Qur'an. It is worth noting that one does not necessarily have to agree with all of Islahi's conclusions, but his research has convincingly shown several important aspects: 

1: Individual surahs (chapters) of the Qur'an are centered around specific key themes.

2: A complementary relationship exists between surah pairs.

3: Larger sets of surahs, which Islahi refers to as surah groups exhibit identifiable patterns of organization and coherence, which he terms "nazm."

Upon studying Islahi’s Tafsir, Tadabbur-i Qur'an, one is likely to be left with the impression that, contrary to the commonly held view of the Qur'an as disjointed, it is, in fact, a well-organized book. Given that the Qur'an often has pedagogical objectives, emphasizing guidance (huda') and illumination (nur), the insights of modern scholars like Islahi can potentially be better understood when considered in the context of educational and learning psychology.

For instance, psychologists have noted that breaking down complex subjects into smaller subunits and delivering them over specific intervals and through various methods can significantly enhance comprehension, assimilation, and retention of the material. In this light, the Qur'an's apparent disjointedness may be viewed as a pedagogical tool aimed at facilitating understanding and gradual comprehension.

Additionally, the repetitive content in the Qur'an can be interpreted through the lens of what psychologists refer to as "shaping" using "schedules of reinforcement." This involves shaping behavior through a series of successive approximations toward the desired pattern by selectively reinforcing certain responses. In this context, the Qur'an employs a combination of fixed and variable interval schedules of reinforcement to bring the reader closer to the intended pattern and goal through continual reinforcement and repetition.

To fully appreciate the repetitions and diverse topics found in the Qur'an, an understanding of the Qur'an's discourse on the universe and reality is essential. Sachiko Murata (b. 1943) and William C. Chittick (b. 1943), both professors of religion at Stony Brook University, argue that the Qur'an presents a unity of purpose within its diverse themes. They emphasize that Western readers often find the Qur'an challenging, especially in translation, and attribute this difficulty to their expectations as readers. The text is described as extraordinary but does not conform to conventional ideas of what a book should be.

Furthermore, Murata and Chittick highlight how contemporary thought patterns are shaped by mass media, the internet, and educational institutions, rather than by traditional religious centers. They suggest that most people, consciously or unconsciously, lack a deep understanding of the biblical worldview, similar to the Qur'anic worldview. Thus, encountering the Qur'an without an appreciation of the underlying thought patterns can confirm pre-existing biases, making it challenging to truly grasp the Quranic perspective.

In summary, Mustansir Mir's examination of Amin Ahsan Islahi's work underscores the Qur'an's underlying design and organization. It also suggests that understanding the Qur'an may require a shift in perspective influenced by educational psychology and an appreciation of its unique worldview. Additionally, Murata and Chittick emphasize that the challenges of comprehending the Qur'an often stem from readers' expectations and the modern cultural milieu, which may not align with the text's unconventional yet profound nature.

Some Modern Academic Views

There exists a third group of Western writers and thinkers whose perspectives on the language, composition, and impact of the Qur'an align closely with those held by Muslims on these matters. For example, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832), the renowned German writer and polymath, made notable comments regarding the style of the Qur'an. He expressed, "As often as we approach it, it always proves repulsive anew, gradually, however, it attracts, it astonishes, and in the end, it forces admiration."

H. A. R. Gibb (1895-1971), in response to Thomas Carlyle's assessment that the Qur'an is "as toilsome reading as I ever undertook," concurs with Carlyle's judgment. However, Gibb adds that the Qur'an possesses a merit beyond its literary qualities. He emphasizes that if a book truly emanates from the heart, it will have the power to resonate with other hearts, surpassing the significance of artistry and craftsmanship. Gibb further acknowledges that evaluating the literary merit of the Qur'an must consider the genius of the Arabic language. He asserts that, in the past fifteen centuries, no one has wielded the Arabic language with as much power, audacity, and emotional range as Muhammad did.

Emil Derenghem (1892-1971) notes the literary beauty and enigmatic nature of the Qur'an, which continues to evoke fervor even among those who may not be devout. George Sale (1697–1736), an English orientalist, extols the elegance and purity of the Qur'an's language. He emphasizes that Muhammad relied on the Qur'an's miraculous literary quality to validate his mission, openly challenging the most eloquent individuals in Arabia to produce a chapter comparable to it. Sale also lauds the Qur'an's style as beautiful, adorned with bold figures, enlivened by florid and sententious expressions, and often reaching sublime and magnificent heights when describing the majesty and attributes of God.

John Alden Williams (1928-2022), a professor of humanities at the College of William and Mary in Virginia, characterizes the Arabic of the Qur'an as striking, soaring, vivid, terrible, tender, and breathtaking. He contends that applying adjectives like "beautiful" or "persuasive" to the Qur'an is inadequate, as its vivid imagery and compelling measures directly impact the intellect.

However, the primary challenge for Western readers, including orientalists, lies in the translation of the Qur'an. Translating true poetry into a foreign language invariably results in a loss of depth and beauty. This challenge is even more pronounced with the Qur'an, given the Arabic language's inherent richness and erudition. Many masterpieces of Arabic prose and poetry lose their essence when translated into other languages, and the Qur'an is no exception.

Renowned scholar of comparative religions, Karen Armstrong (b. 1944), notes that Arabic has a unique quality that cannot be fully conveyed in another language. Even those fluent in both Arabic and English feel that reading the Qur'an in English presents an entirely different experience. Similarly, Oxford scholar John Naish (1923-1963) emphasizes that the Qur'an's original Arabic possesses a seductive beauty and charm that cannot be fully captured in translation.

Ronald Victor Courtenay Bodley (1892-1970), who spent years with nomadic Arab tribes in the western Sahara, emphasizes the significance of the Qur'an's phraseology. He asserts that the Qur'an's inspiring rhythm is lost when removed from its Arabic context. This phenomenon explains the frustrations experienced by Western readers and orientalists when encountering the Qur'an. Furthermore, it calls into question the validity of assessments based on translated editions, as they are far removed from the original language and may fail to appreciate the literary composition, beauty, and erudition of this profound and complex text.

The unique composition of the Qur'an defies categorization as complete prose, poetry, history, or biography. It also distinguishes itself from anthologies, metaphysical dialects, and abstract philosophical homiletics. The Qur'an's focus lies in morality, social transformation, peace, justice, and eternal salvation. It bridges the gap between the material and spiritual realms, providing a conceptual framework for understanding worldly life. Its message emphasizes the transformation of time and space as an urgent concern for humanity.

The Qur'an promotes egalitarianism and morality throughout its content, and this focus has had a transformative impact. As Bodley explains, it turned simple shepherds, merchants, and nomads of Arabia into warriors and empire builders. Philip Hitti (1886-1978) highlights that the Qur'an's influence extends beyond religious matters, serving as the basis for theology, jurisprudence, and science within Islamic civilization. The classical Arabic language, modeled after the Qur'an, has unified Arabic-speaking regions.

In essence, the Qur'an's language is rhythmic and rhetorical, setting a standard that contemporary Arabic writers strive to emulate. It possesses a literary and linguistic richness that transcends conventional classifications, making it a unique and enduring masterpiece.

These observations, in conjunction with the insights of various figures such as Alphonse Marie Louis de Prat de Lamartine (1790–1869), a French writer and poet, Arnold Joseph Toynbee (1889–1975), a British historian, Hans Küng (b. 1928), a Swiss Catholic priest and theologian, John Louis Esposito (b. 1940), a Georgetown University Professor of Islamic Studies, and many others, closely align with traditional Islamic perspectives regarding the nature of the Qur'an.

Profound Knowledge of Classical Arabic

It is important to recognize that the Qur'an was revealed to seventh-century Arabs who possessed a rich literary tradition, and it was intended to be recited, practiced, and understood. To truly appreciate its style, beauty, and composition, a profound knowledge of classical Arabic is essential. This requirement was acknowledged by Mohammad Asad, a European Jewish convert to Islam (born Leopold Weiss 1900–1992), who was a celebrated translator and modern Qur'anic scholar. Asad asserted that an intimate understanding of the Qur'an's diction necessitates familiarity with the Bedouin speech of Central and Eastern Arabia, in addition to academic knowledge of classical Arabic.

However, this does not imply that one must master the nuances of the Arabic language to grasp the Qur'an's message. Even when translated into other languages, the core message is simple and accessible. Nevertheless, for a deeper appreciation of the Qur'an's literary and linguistic aspects, including its style, beauty, and composition, a comprehensive understanding of classical Arabic is invaluable.

Once an individual becomes acquainted with the Arabic language and combines this with a solid grasp of related Islamic sciences, they may find it easier to appreciate the aesthetic and rhetorical features of the Qur'an. They may then share the viewpoint of Arthur J. Arberry, who regards the diverse rhythms of the Qur'an and its message as an "undeniable claim to rank amongst the greatest literary masterpieces of mankind."

Hence, when non-Muslim readers describe the Qur'an as "crude," "toilsome," or "incoherent rambling," these assessments can be contextualized and explained within the framework of these observations and realities.

It is worth concluding with Charles J. Adams' (b. 1947) assertion that the study of the Qur'an for its own sake is of paramount importance in deepening the understanding of Islam as a religion. Various scholars, including Toshihiko Izutsu (1914–1993), a professor of Islam at McGill University, Bishop Kenneth Cragg (1913-2012), a renowned Anglican scholar of Islam, Fazlur Rahman (1919-1988), and especially Angelika Neuwirth (b. 1943), a contemporary German expert on the Qur'an, and Pierre Crapon de Caprona, a French scholar of the Qur'an, have made efforts in this direction.

Angelika Neuwirth, for instance, conducted studies on oath clusters in the Makkan surahs, leading her to conclude that "the book" is the most significant symbol of revelation. These endeavors, along with fresh approaches, enable a better understanding and fuller appreciation of the Muslim Scripture, its composition, language, I'jaz, or inimitability, content, and impact to emerge.

The Western world is engaged in a complex dynamic involving both antagonism and admiration towards the Qur’an. Critics who disparage it inadvertently elevate its prominence in public conversation, though negatively. Conversely, advocates of the Qur’an and its place in the Muslim World strive to rectify these adverse views, highlighting its moral nature, and spiritual strength and presenting it as an exemplary model for human reformation. This persistent conflict tends to cast the Qur’an in a favorable and commendable light, progressively influencing public opinion. In this evolving interplay, the Qur’an’s authentic moral character triumphs, overcoming the various hurdles and adversities encountered.